U  T  HERN  B  *.*»  N  u  «- . , 

IY   OF  CALIFORNIA 
LIBRARY, 

COS  ANGfcXES.  CALIF. 


ilAIENOKMAL  SCHOOL, 

,  Cflfc, 


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STATE  HORfttoi.  SCHOOL, 

X*OS  BJ^GEiUlaS,  CAL». 


farm 


SOILS 

How  to  Handle  and  Improve  Them 
By  S.  W.  FLETCHER 

Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College 


Illustrated  from  photographs 
by  the  author 


NEW  YORK 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 


.  I£>C$ 


Copyright,  1907,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 
Published,  January,  1907 


All  rights  reierved, 

including  that  of  translation  into  foreign  languages 
including  the  Scandinavian 


31  4  S 


S53 


\ 

CO 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  illustrations  are  by  the  author  except  No. 
24,  from  Rollins  and  Linn,  Lookout  Mountain, 
Tenn.;  No.  78,  from  "Irrigation,"  by  Newell;  and 
Nos.  80,  81,  83,  and  84,  which  are  from  the  Office 
of  Irrigation  and  Drainage  Investigations,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Perhaps  the  most  valuable  feature  of  the  book  is 
the  lists  of  crop  rotations  in  the  Appendix,  which 
were  contributed  by  authorities  on  this  subject  in 
the  several  states,  as  noted  in  connection  with  the 
lists.  These  courtesies  are  gratefully  acknowl- 
edged. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF 

dffl.  fepwcer,  farmer 

HAS  GIVEN  GREATER  SIMPLICITY  AND  FORCE 
TO  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHING 


,  CHI,. 


FOREWORD 

Many  of  the  early  books  on  farming  were 
written  in  a  technical  style.  They  smacked  of  the 
lecture  room  and  the  library  rather  than  of  the 
soil.  They  were  scholarly  rather  than  practical. 
A  spirit  of  directness  and  simplicity  is  be- 
ginning to  dominate  agricultural  literature.  The 
modern  type  of  farm  books  is  born  of  actual 
contact  with  the  soil  and  a  desire  to  be  of  service 
to  the  men  who  are  getting  a  living  from  the  soil. 
They  are  democratic;  they  discuss  common  things 
in  a  plain  way.  The  long  and  tedious  tables  of 
figures  in  the  old  books  are  giving  place  to  crisp 
summaries.  The  technical  lecture-room  phrases 
are  replaced  by  words  in  common  use  on  farms. 
The  idea  is  not  to  present  less  science — for  nothing 
is  so  practical  as  sound  science — but  to  present 
science  in  a  simple  and  practical  way.  This  new 
spirit  is  contemporaneous  with  the  farmers'  in- 
stitute, the  farmer's  reading-course,  Nature-study, 
elementary  agriculture  in  the  public  schools  and 
other  efforts  to  serve  the  man  who  tills  the  soil. 
It  is  an  expression  of  a  general  movement  which 
aims  to  democracise  agricultural  teaching. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  set  forth  the  impor- 
tant facts  about  the  soil  in  a  plain  and  untechnical 
manner.  It  is  not  a  contribution  to  agricultural 
science,  but  an  interpretation  of  it — a  new  presen- 
tation of  what  is  already  known. 

S.  W.  FLETCHER. 
Agricultural  College,  Michigan, 
October  30,  1906. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.    SOIL  BUILDERS 

PAGE 

The  weathering  of  rocks    .......         3 

Mountains  and  stones  becoming  smaller         ...         3 
Soils  being  changed  into  rock        .          ....          5 

Changes  in  temperature  crack  rocks  ....  5 

Plants  as  soil  builders  7 

The  work  of  lichens  and  mosses  .  .  .  .  '  7 

Soils  built  mostly  by  plants  .....  8 

Stems  and  roots  split  rocks  .....  9 

Plants  as  soil  binders  ......  10 

How  ice  has  made  soil        .          .          .          .          .         .          .11 

Animals  as  soil  builders  .          .          .         .          .         .         12 

The  remains  of  all  animals  are  returned  to  the  soil  .  12 

The  service  of  ants,  moles,  gophers,  beavers,  etc.  .  .  13 
How  angleworms  improve  soil  .  .  .  .  .14 

The  action  of  moving  water        ......         15 

In  wearing  away  a  soil  and  carrying  it  elsewhere  .       16 

The  origin  of  alluvial  soils  .         .          .         .         .17 

In  dissolving  rocks  .  .  .  .  .  17 

Soils  built  wholly  or  partly  by  the  wind       .          .          .         .18 

The  soil  teems  with  life 20 

CHAPTER  II.    THE  NATURE  OF  SOILS 

The  fineness  of  the  soil 23 

All  soils  are  becoming  finer  .....  23 

The  number  of  particles  in  different  soils  ...  23 
Fineness  is  richness  ......  25 

The  weight  of  soils    ........       26 

The  mineral  contents  of  the  soil  .....  26 

The  rocks  from  which  soil  is  made  ....  27 
Elements,  compounds  and  plant  food  ....  28 

The  water  in  the  soil  .  .  v .  .  .  .29 

Free  or  ground  water  ......  29 

Film  water 30 

Water  absorbed  from  the  air  .  .  .  .  .31 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


The  temperature  of  the  soil         .... 

How  warm  the  soil  must  be  for  various  crops 

The  comparative  temperature  of  different  soils 

Drainage  promotes  warmth 

Influence  of  the  exposure  on  the  warmth  of  soils 

Dark  colored  soils  absorb  more  heat 
,     The  influence  of  tillage  on  soil  temperature 
The  ventilation  of  the  soil  .... 

The  necessity  for  air  in  the  soil 

Methods  of  improving  the  ventilation  of  soil 
Electricity  in  the  soil 
Germ  life  in  the  soil  ..... 

The  beneficial  work  of  nitrogen-fixing  germs 

Conditions  essential  to  the  life  of  these  germs 

Germs  that  waste  nitrogen 

A  multitude  of  other  soil  bacteria          .         . 
Chemical  changes  in  the  soil       .... 


PAGB 

31 
81 
32 
33 
34 
34 
36 
37 
37 
37 
39 
40 
40 
42 
42 
43 
44 


CHAPTER  III.    THE  KINDS  OF  SOILS  AND  HOW  TO 
MANAGE  THEM 


Sedentary  soils 

Transported  soils 
Alluvial  soils 
Drift  soils 
Wind-built  soils 

The  composition  of  soils 
The  basis  of  separation 
The  characteristics  of  sand 
The  characteristics  of  clay 
The  characteristics  of  silt     . 
The  characteristics  of  humus 

The  leading  types  of  farm  soils 

Sandy  soils 

Sandy  loams    . 

Clay  soils 

Clay  loams 

Loams 

Gravelly  and  stony  loams 

Peat  and  muck 

Loess  soils 

Adobe  soils 

Salt  marsh  soils 


46 

47 
47 
48 
50 
51 
51 
51 
52 
52 
53 
53 
54 
55 
56 
58 
59 
59 
60 
62 
63 
64 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

The  problem  of  alkali  soils 65 

What  causes  alkali  .......  65 

The  effect  of  alkali 66 

Treatment  for  alkali  ......  67 

The  subsoil  69 

What  it  is 69 

Its  fertility 70 

Different  types  .......  70 

Analysing  the  soil  at  home          ......  71 

Weighing  the  humus            ......  72 

Separating  the  sand,  silt,  and  clay  ....  73 

CHAPTER  IV.    SOIL  WATER 

The  amount  of  water  needed  by  plants         . 

How  plants  drink       ....... 

Rainfall  insufficient  or  unevenly  distributed 

The  capacity  of  different  soils  to  hold  water 

Influence  of  the  subsoil  on  water-holding  capacity  .         .  82 

Height  of  the  water  table     .                            ...  82 

How  to  increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of  soils         .         .  83 

The  influence  of  forests  upon  the  water  supply         .         .  84 

The  loss  of  soil  water  by  seepage          .....  84 

The  extent  of  the  loss           ......  85 

Plant  food  lost  in  seepage  water    .....  85 

How  to  prevent  loss  by  seepage    .....  87 

The  movement  of  film  water                 .....  87 

How  film  water  creeps  from  grain  to  grain      ...  87 

Capillary  action 89 

How  to  prevent  the  loss  of  film  water  by  evaporation       .  90 
The  function  of  a  mulch      .         .         .         .         .         .91 

The  soil  mulch 91 

The  water-moving  ability  of  different  soils              ...  92 

How  to  test  the  water-holding  capacity  of  soils             .          .  93 

How  to  test  the  water-moving  ability  of  soils       *         .         .  95 

CHAPTER  V.    THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE 

The  present  emphasis  on  good  tillage            ....  97 

Tillage  to  prepare  the  seed  bed             .....  98 

The  competition  between  plants  in  the  wild    ...  98 

Culture  an  improvement  on  nature        ....  99 

The  reward  of  thoroughness 100 


\ 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


Tillage  to  kill  weeds  .     ,     . 

What  a  weed  is  . 

The  tirade  against  weeds  . 

Friendly  words  for  weeds  . 

A  spur  to  the  sluggard  . 

Tillage  to  save  water  . 

The  amount  lost  by  evaporation 

The  efficiency  of  the  soil  mulch              .  . 

Increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  soils 
Dry  farming  ...... 

Its  growing  importance  in  the  West  . 

Conditions  under  which  it  is  necessary 

Methods  of  handling  the  soil 

Crops  under  dry  farming  . 

Caution  necessary  .  .  .  .  . 
Tillage  to  promote  fertility  . 

Nature's  method  of  promoting  fertility  . 

How  tillage  increases  fertility        .         .  . 

Tillage  the  poor  man's  manure  .  . 
The  alchemy  that  follows  the  plow 


PAGB 

101 
101 
101 
102 
103 
104 
104 
104 
105 
105 
106 
106 
107 
108 
109 
110 
110 
110 
111 
112 


CHAPTER  VI.    THE  OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  OF 
PLOWING 


The  evolution  of  the  plow 

Primitive  plows     .  ... 

Early  American  plows 

The  modern  plow 
The  objects  of  plowing       .... 

To  destroy  wild  plants  and  bury  herbage 

To  pulverise  the  soil 

To  prepare  the  seed  bed 

To  promote  fertility 

To  deepen  the  soil  reservoir 

To  drain  the  soil         .... 

To  establish  a  mulch  .         .         . 

The  depth  to  plow  is  influenced  by: 

The  nature  of  the  soil          .         .         . 

The  time  of  year 

The  nature  of  the  subsoil 

The  value  of  deep-plowing  and  sub-soiling 


114 
114 
115 
116 
117 
117 
118 
120 
120 
121 
122 
122 
122 
123 
123 
124 
126 


CONTENTS  xv 

PAGB 

The  draft  and  power  in  plowing  .....     127 

Heavy  teams  do  better  work         .          .         .         .         .128 

Horse,  mule,  and  ox  power  .....     129 

The  power  for  plowing       .         .         .         .         .         .129 

Steam  and  electric  power  .         .         .         .         .129 

Greater  power  needed  .  .  .  .  .  .130 

Essentials  of  a  good  plow  .  .  .  .  .  .131 

The  beam 131 

The  mouldboard .131 

The  coulter 132 

The  jointer 132 

The  beam-wheel 133 

The  share 133 

The  clevis  133 

When  to  plow 134 

The  benefits  of  and  the  occasions  for  fall  plowing  .  134 

The  critical  time  for  spring  plowing  .  .  .135 

When  plowing  is  dispensed  with  ....     136 

The  usefulness  of  the  different  kinds  of  plows  .  .  .  137 
The  landside  plow  .  .  .  ,  .  .  .  .137 

The  swivel  plow 137 

The  sulky  plow 138 

The  gang  plow 138 

The  disk  plow 139 

Adjusting  the  plow  in  the  field  .....     140 

CHAPTER  VII.    HARROWING  AND  CULTIVATING 

The  tillage  of  preparation  .         .         .         .         .         .142 

The  objects  of  harrowing  ......     142 

Better  harrowing  needed    .          .          .          .         .         .         .143 

The  kinds  of  harrows  and  the  influences  of  each  .         .144 

Each  kind  best  for  specific  purpose        ....     144 

The  spike-tooth  harrow       .         .         .         .         .         .145 

The  spring-tooth  harrow      ......     147 

The  Acme  harrow       .......     148 

Rolling  harrows — disk,  cutaway,  and  spading         .         .     149 
When  the  soil  is  ready  to  harrow      ,    .          .          .          .          .151 

The  kinds  of  cultivators  and  the  usefulness  of  each         .          .152 
The  difference  between  a  harrow  and  a  cultivator  .     152 

Shovel -tooth  or  coulter  cultivator  .         .         .         .153 

Spike-tooth  cultivator  .......          .          .153 

Spring-tooth  cultivators  ,    .         .         .         .     154 

Sulky  cultivators         .          .          .  .          .          .155 

Weeders  156 


xvi  CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Cultivating  to  kill  weeds  ......     157 

Weeds  steal  plant  food         ......     157 

Weeds  steal  water       .......     158 

The  best  time  to  kill  weeds 159 

When  weeds  get  a  start        .  .         .          .         .     160 

Weed  collection  .         .         .         .         .         .         .162 

The  prevalence  of  weeds  in  sown  crops  .         .         .163 

Cultivation  to  save  water  .         .         .         .         .          .163 

Sometimes  needed  when  there  are  no  weeds  .         .     164 

Signs  of  the  need  of  cultivation     .          .         .         .         .164 

How  often  to  cultivate  for  making  a  mulch     .         .         .165 
How  deep  to  cultivate        .         .         .         .         .         .         .166 

The  advantages  of  level  culture  .....     168 

Preventing  the  loss  of  soil  water  from  sod  land       .          .         .     170 

CHAPTER  VIII.    ROLLING,  PLANKING  AND  HOEING 

Rolling  to  assist  germination  by  supplying  more  moisture        .     171 
How  accomplished      .         .         .          .         .         .          .172 

When  practicable        .          .          .         .         .         .         .172 

Making  a  mulch  after  rolling         .....      173 

Other  illustrations  of  the  principle  of  rolling  .  .174 

Other  benefits  of  rolling 175 

To  crush  lumps  .          .          .          .          .          .     175 

To  warm  the  soil         .......     176 

Incidental  benefits  .  .  .  .  .  .  .176 

The  kinds  of  rollers 177 

Planking  178 

The  construction  of  a  planker  .  .  .  .  .178 
When  to  use  it  and  what  it  does  .  .  .  .178 

Hoeing 179 

Of  less  importance  than  formerly  .          .          .          .179 

Hoeing  to  make  a  mulch      .         .         .         .         .          .     180 

Hoeing  to  kill  weeds  .         .         .         .  180 

Good  and  poor  hoeing          ......      181 

Different  styles  of  blades 182 

Miscellaneous  hand  tools   .......     183 

Their  decreasing  importance         .         .         .         .         .183 

Hand  cultivators         .         .         .         .         .         .         .184 

Scuffle  hoes  . 184 

Selecting  farm  tools  .         .         .         .         .         .         .185 

Too  many  tools  means  tied-up  capital  .  -  .  186 

A.  variety  necessary  .-.-.•..  .  .  186 


CONTENTS  xvii 

CHAPTER  IX.    THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS 

PAGE 

Drainage  mainly  a  problem  east  of  the  Mississippi         .         .189 
When  drainage  is  needed  .          .         .          .         .         .190 

To  dry  put  a  wet  soil  ......     191 

To  deepen  a  shallow  soil      .         .          .         .         .         .192 

To  improve  texture     .          .          .          .          .          .          .192 

Many  soils  are  well  drained  naturally  .          .          .         .194 

When  it  will  pay  to  drain  land  .         .         .          .         .195 

How  drainage  affects  the  soil       .         .         .         .         .         .196 

It  makes  the  soil  wanner  .         .         .         .          .196 

It  ventilates  the  soil  .         .         .         .         .197 

Draining  a  soil  makes  it  more  moist  .          .         .     197 

Practical  results  from  draining  land       .         .          .          .199 

What  kind  of  drains  to  use 200 

Surface  drains  .......     200 

Underdrains  200 

When  ditches  are  practicable        .         .         .         .         .201 
How  to  dig  a  drainage  ditch       ......     202 

The  grade          .          . 203 

The  distance  apart      .......     204 

Surface  drainage  by  plowing  into  lands         ....     204 

The  action  of  underdrains  ......     205 

Planning  a  system  of  underdrains        .....     207 

The  necessity  for  a  plan       ......     207 

The  outlet 209 

The  grade 210 

Simple  devices  for  establishing  the  grade  .  .  .  .212 
The  number  and  direction  of  the  drains  .  .  .  .216 
Distance  between  drains  ......  218 

The  depth  to  lay  the  drains 219 

The  kinds  of  tiles  . 221 

The  size  of  tiles 222 

Digging  the  ditch 224 

Placing  the  tiles         ........     225 

Filling  the  ditch 226 

Obstructions  in  tile  drains  ......     227 

The  cost  of  putting  in  tile  drains          .....     228 

Other  kinds  of  underdrains         .          .          .          .          .          .229 

Draining  pot  holes  .......     230 

Draining  large  swamps  and  marshes    .          .          .          .          .231 

The  large  area  of  reclairnable  swamp  and  marsh  land       •    231 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  X.    FARM  IRRIGATION 

PAGE 

The  present  extent  of  irrigation  .....     233 

In  foreign  countries  .          .          .          .          .          .     233 

In  the  United  States 233 

The  area  in  the  United  States  that  can  be  irrigated         .         .     234 
The  objects  of  irrigation  .          .          .          .          .          .236 

To  remedy  a  deficiency  in  rainfall          .         .         .         .236 

To  enrich  the  land       .         \ 237 

To  correct  alkali  and  improve  texture    .         .         .         .237 

How  far  the  natural  water  supply  will  go  depends  upon  .     237 

The  minimum  amount  of  rainfall  needed         .          .          .238 
The  season  when  it  falls       .  .         .         .         .238 

The  retentiveness  of  the  soil          .....     238 

Irrigation  in  humid  regions          ......     239 

Used  to  supplement  deficiency  in  summer  rainfall  .     239 

Under  what  conditions  it  will  pay     \  ...     240 

Better  tillage  may  obviate  the  necessity  for  irrigation         .     241 

The  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  .          .          .          .     243 

From  streams  .         .  .         .         .         .     243 

From  ponds  and  lakes  .          .          .          .          .243 

From  springs-and  wells        ......     244 

Hydrant  water  ...          .          .          .          .          .     244 

The  construction  of  small  earth  reservoirs     ....     245 

Pumping  water  for  irrigation  .         .         .         .         .246 

With  windmills 247 

With  steam  and  gasoline  engines  ....     248 

With  water  wheels  .         .         .         .         .         .249 

With  hydraulic  rams  ......     250 

The  sluice  gate 250 

Building  distributing  ditches       .         .         .         .         .         .251 

The  use  of  flumes  and  pipes        .         .         .         .    -      .         .     252 

Cement-lined  ditches          .......     252 

Methods  of  applying  water          ......     253 

A'local  and  personal  problem        .....     253 

Check  flooding        '    .          .          .      '    .          .          .          .     254 

Wild  flooding  ...          .          .          .          .256 

Irrigation  by  furrows          .......     257 

Sub-irrigation  .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .     260 

Methods  of  measuring  water      .         .         .         .         .         .     262 

The  divisor        .         . 262 

The  module 263 

By  apportionment       .......     263 

Units  in  measuring  water     ......     263 


CONTENTS  xix 

PAGE 

The  duty  of  water 264 

The  character  of  the  soil 265 

The  kind  of  crop 265 

The  amount  of  rainfall 266 

The  frequency  and  time  of  irrigation  ....     267 

Indications  in  the  soil  and  crop  ....     268 

The  folly  of  over-irrigation 268 

The  time  of  day  to  irrigate  .....     269 

Directing  the  flow .269 

Tillage  after  irrigation       .......     270 

Methods  of  irrigating  important  crops          .         .         .         .271 

Meadows  ........     271 

Fruits .271 

Potatoes .273 

Garden  vegetables      .......     274 

The  cost  of  irrigation         .......     274 

National  aid  in  irrigation  ......     275 

The  Reformation  Act  of  1902 276 

Windbreaks •      .     278 

CHAPTER  XI.    MAINTAINING  THE  FERTILITY  OF 
THE  SOIL 

What  fertility  is          .         .          .          .          .         .          .280 

Many  views       ........     281 

The  native  richness  of  soils        .         .         .         .         .         .281 

The  soil  a  storehouse  of  plant  food    .....     282 

Plant  food  locked  up 282 

Soils  exhausted  of  plant  food     ......     283 

The  loss  of  fertility  by  erosion  ......     284 

An  insidious  leak       .......     286 

Erosion  in  the  South 287' 

Methods  of  checking  erosion      ....  .     237 

Preserve  forests  and  wooded  strips       .         .         .         .288 

Re-forestation    .         .    • 288 

Directing  water.         .......     289 

Terracing  . 291 

Side-hill  ditches 291 

Soil-binding  crops       .         .         .         .         .         .         .291 

Breaks      .  292 

Deep-plowing  and  humus  ......     294 

Tillage  operations       .......     295 


xx  CONTENTS 

PAGB 

The  relation  of  fallowing  to  soil  fertility     ....     296 

An  ancient  practice    .......     296 

Fallowing  to  store  water     ......     297 

Fallowing  to  set  free  plant  food  .....     297 

Fallowing  to  destroy  weeds          .....     298 

The  methods  of  fallowing 298 

Rotation  of  crops      ........     299 

Nature's  rotations       .......     300 

Why  a  rotation  is  beneficial       ......     300 

It  affects  the  relative  supply  of  plant  foods  .         .         .301 
The  different  rooting  habits  of  crops    .         .         .         .301 

Rotations  and' weediness     ......     302 

Injurious  insects  and  diseases  lessened          .         .         .     303 
Keep  the  soil  busy      .......     304 

Economy  of  labour    .......     304 

Choosing  crops  for  a  rotation     ......     305 

Typical  systems  of  rotations       .         .         .         .         .         .     307 

Single-crop  farming  .         .         .         .         .         .         .310 

Selling  fertility          . 311 

A  bank  account  with  the  soil  of  fanning       .         .         .312 

Loss  of  plant  food  in  different  systems          .         .         .312 

Advantages  of  diversified  farming       .          .          .          .          .315 

Keeping  live-stock  to  maintain  fertility        .         .         .         .316 

The  excretory  theory  of  soil  fertility  .         .         .         .         .318 

CHAPTER  XII.     GREEN-MANURING  AND 
WORN-OUT  SOILS 

What  is  meant  by  "good  texture" 322 

How  Nature  secures  good  texture       .         .         .         .         .  323 

How  humus  benefits  the  soil      ......  327 

By  improving  its  texture     ......  327 

By  increasing  its  power  to  hold  water  ....  828 

By  enriching  it  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  328 

The  kinds  of  green-manures      ......  329 

Leguminous       ........  329 

Non-leguminous          .......  330 

When  a  green-manuring  crop  may  be  grown        .         .         .  330 

In  a  rotation      ........  331 

Catch  crops  and  cover  crops        .         .         .         .         .331 

The  fertilising  value  of  roots  and  stubble    ....  332 

Green-manures  not  complete  fertilisers                 .         .         .  332 


CONTENTS  xxi 

PAGE 

Inoculating  the  soil            .......  333 

With  old  soil 334 

With  artificial  cultures 334 

Each  crop  has  different  bacteria  .....  335 

Plowing  under  a  green-manure  ......  337 

Leguminous  crops  for  green-manuring         ....  338 

Non-leguminous  crops  for  green  manuring.          .          .          .  341 

The  renovation  of  worn-out  soils        .....  342 

How  soils  have  become  worn  out          ....  343 

How  to  build  up  worn-out  soils  .....  344 

CHAPTER  XIII.    FARM  MANURES 

Manuring  the  oldest  means  of  maintaining  fertility     .          .  346 
How  manure  benefits  the  soil    .         .         .         .         .         .346 

Its  value  as  plant  food.       ......  347 

The  chemist's  valuations  not  the  fanner's     .         .         .  347 

Its  influence  on  soil  texture          .....  347 

Bacteria  in  manure    .......  348 

Comparative  plant-food  value  of  different  manures       .         .  349 

The  quality  of  manure.     .......  350 

How  manure  is  wasted      .         .         .         .         .         .         .351 

Throwing  it  away       .          .          .         .         .         .         .351 

Loss  from  leaching     .......  352 

Loss  from  fermentation       ......  353 

Loss  in  liquid  portions        ......  354 

How  to  care  for  manure   .......  354 

Covered  barn-yards    .......  355 

Manure  pits,  sheds  and  cellars    .....  355 

Preventing  fermentation      ......  356 

The  use  of  bedding 357 

Mineral  absorbents     .......  357 

The  amount  of  manure  made  on  the  farm           .         .          .  358 

When  to  apply  manure     .......  360 

How  much  to  use     ........  361 

How  to  apply 363 

CHAPTER  XIV.    COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS 

Rapid  growth  of  fertiliser  trade          .....  364 

What  commercial  fertilisers  are  made  of    .          .          .          .  866 

State  supervision  of  the  fertiliser  trade       ....  367 


xxii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Studying  fertiliser  tags                .          .....  368 

Some  guarantees  misleading      .          .....  368 

Repetitions  in  guarantees          .       -    .          .          .          .          .  369 

The  forms  of  phosphoric  acid    ......  370 

Calculating  the  value  of  a  fertiliser    .....  373 

Low-grade  fertiliser  expensive    ......  375 

The  advantages  of  home  mixing         .....  376 

Sources  of  nitrogen           .......  377 

Sources  of  phosphoric  acid         ......  379 

Bone  fertiliser    ........  379 

Rock  phosphates         .          .          .          .          .          .          .381 

Phosphate  slag 381 

Superphosphates         .......  382 

Sources  of  potash     ........  384 

Mixing  the  raw  materials        ...         .         .         .         .  386 

What  kinds  of  fertiliser  to  use   ......  388 

Soil  analyses  as  a  guide  to  fertilising    ....  389 

Questioning  the  soij   .......  390 

The  needs  of  different  crops         .....  392 

The  relative  importance  of  the  three  plant  foods           .         .  394 

When  to  apply  fertilisers  .          .          .          .          .          .          .  395 

The  solubility  of  the  fertiliser 395 

The  needs  of  the  crop         .         .         .         .         .         .896 

How  to  apply  fertilisers     .......  396 

When  it  will  pay  to  use  fertilisers       .....  398 

Indirect  fertilisers     .          .......  399 

The  benefits  of  liming 399 

Lime  a  plant  food      .......  399 

Improves  texture        .......  899 

Unlocks  potash  ........  400 

Sweetens  sour  soils     .         .     -    .         .         .         .         .  400 

The  soils  that  need  liming         ......  400 

Tests  for  sour  soils  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .401 

Land  plaster,  marl  and  other  amendments           .         .         .  402 


APPENDIX 


I.  Crop  rotations  in  the  different  states.         .         .         .     405 

II.  Analyses  of  soils      .......     417 

III.  Native  plant  food  in  farm  soils.        .         .         .         .419 


CONTENTS  xxiii 

PAGE 

IV.  Plant  food  drawn  from  the  soil  by  average  yields  of 

crops          ........     420 

V.  Analyses  of  commercial  fertilising  materials        .         .421 
VI.  Analyses  of  farm  manures        .....     422 

VII.  Fertilising  materials  in  farm  products         .          .          .     423 
VIII.  Schedule  for  the  valuation  of  fertilisers     .         .         .     426 

INDEX  427 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


"The  Farmer"  L.  H.  Bailey Frontispiece 

FACING  FACE 

1.  Taughannock  Falls,  Ithaca,  N.  Y 4 

2.  Soil  and  Stones  Brought  Down  by  a  Stream  ....  4 

3.  Rock  Split  by  the  Growth  of  a  Tree  which  Happened 

to  Find  Lodgment  in  a  Crevice 5 

4.  Ledge  Being  Torn  Apart  by  the  Growth  of  Tree  Roots 

in  the  Crevices 5 

5.  Erosion  of  a  Mountain  in  Montana 6 

6.  Niagara  Falls,  Canadian  Side 6 

7.  The  Beginning  of  a  Soil  6,000  Feet  High,    on    Grand- 

father Mountain,  North  Carolina 7 

8.  Mosses  and  Other  Humble  Plants  on  Ledges       ...  7 

9.  A  Pond  Filling  Up,  Plants  Encroach  Upon  It  More  Every 

Year  Until  Finally  It  is  Completely  Filled  ....  10 

10.  A  Pond  Completely  Filled  by  Plants 10 

11.  The  Humble  Beginnings  of  a  Soil 11 

12.  The  Great  Usefulness  of  Plants  as  Soil  Builders  ...  11 

13.  Mangrove  Swamp  in  Florida 12 

14.  Cocoanut  Trees  on  the  Coast  of  Florida 12 

15.  Castings  of  Earthworms  on  Surface 13 

16.  Ant-hill 13 

17.  Pieces  of  Rock  Split  Off  by  Frost 13 

18.  Lichens  on  Rock 13 

19.  How  Water  Moves  Through  the  Soil 18 

20.  The  Difference  Between  Surface  Soil  and  Subsoil    .  19 

21.  How  Plants  Eat 19 

22.  A  Sedentary  Soil  of  North  Georgia 20 

23.  A  Transported  Soil— The  "Palouse  Country"  of  Oregon 

and  Washington 20 

24 .  An  Alluvial  or  Water-made  Soil — The  Moccasin  Bend  of 

the  Tennessee  River,  From  Lookout  Mountain,  Near 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 21 

26.  A  Small  Brook  Doing  Exactly  the  Same  Work  as  the 

River  Above 21 

xxv 


xxvi          LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PAGE 

26.  Sand  Dunes  Near  Lake  Michigan — A  Wind-formed  Soil 

that  is  Valueless 28 

27.  The  Everglades  of  Florida— A  Soil  Built  Largely  by  the 

Decay  of  Plants 28 

28.  A  Unique  "Soil" 29 

29.  The  "Particles"  of  the  Above  Soil 29 

30.  The  Three  Chief  Ingredients  of  Soils:  Humus  or  De- 

caying Vegetation,  Clay,  and  Sand    ......  30 

31.  A. Clay  Soil  Cracking 30 

32.  How  Film  Water  is  Prevented  from  Evaporating  by  a 

Soil  Mulch         31 

33.  Corn  Leaves  Curling  in  a  Drought 31 

34.  Tilling  the  Soil — The  Most  Common,  and  the  Most  Im- 

portant Operation  on  the  Farm 102 

35.  Potatoes  in  Dire  Need  of  Tillage 103 

36.  Potatoes  Luxuriating  Under  a  Mulch  of  Loose,  Dry 

Soil 103 

37.  Water  Held  by  a  Coarse  and  by  a  Fine  Soil  .      .     .     .  106 

38.  A'Lumpy  Soil 106 

39.  A  Perfect  Soil  Mulch       . 107 

40.  Where  Troublesome  Weeds  are  Wont  to  Congregate  and 

to  Multiply 107 

41.  Plowing  the  Corn  Field .  116 

42.  Flat-furrow  Plowing — The  Slice  Completely  Inverted      .  117 

43.  Clay  Soil  Plowed  When  Too  Wet 117 

44.  Ideal  Plowing 124 

45.  An  Ideal  Plow  for  Ordinary  Work 125 

46.  A  Cheap  and  Rather  Ineffective  Wooden-beam  Plow      .  125 

47.  Shiftless  Plowing  in  North  Florida 128 

48.  Turning  Under  Thick  Herbage  with  the  Aid  of  a  Chain  128 

49.  The  Appearance  of  Land  After  Fall  Plowing       ...  129 

50.  The  Appearance  of  the  Same  Land  the  Following  Spring  129 

51.  The  Work  of  the  Acme  Harrow 144 

52.  A  Home-made  Spike-tooth  Harrow,  in  Two  Sections      .  145 

53.  A  Sulky  Harrow 145 

54.  A  Spring-tooth  Harrow 146 

55.  The  Work  of  a  Spring-tooth  Harrow 146 

56.  "Sweeps"  Attached  to  a  Plow-stock,  for  "Laying  By" 

Corn 147 

57.  The  Effect  of  Using  the  Above  Tool  for  Cultivating  a 

Cotton  Field 147 

58.  The  Most  Common  Type  of  Deep-working  Coulter-tooth 

Cultivator  158 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS        xxvii 

FACING  PAGE 

59.  Young  Corn  in  Need  of  a  Cultivation 158 

60.  A  Cultivator  that  is  Really  a  Plow 159 

61.  Cultivating  at  a  Disadvantage 159 

62.  Rolling  Wheat  Seeding  in  a  Dry  September    ....  182 

63.  A  Cloddy  Soil  that  would  be  Benefited  by  Rolling    .      .  183 

64.  A  Four-section  Iron  Roller  Weighted 183 

65.  A  Three-section  Iron  Roller 186 

66.  A  Home-made,  Three-section  Wooden  Roller       .      .      .  186 

67.  A  Serviceable  Home-made  Flanker  or  "Float"     .      .      .  187 

68.  Corn  "Drowned  Out" 198 

69.  Meadow  on  which  Less  Water  Has  Been  Standing    .      .  198 

70.  A  Soil  Well-drained  Naturally  by  a  Gravelly  Subsoil      .  199 

71.  Surface  Drainage  by  "Plowing  into  Lands"    ....  199 

72.  Draining  Wet  Lands  with  an  Open  Ditch 202 

73.  An  Open  Ditch  with  Grassed  Sides  on  an  Easy  Slope,  so 

They  do  not  Wash  ....'. 202 

74.  Laying  a  Tile  Drain 203 

75.  A  Tile  that  Has  Been  Clogged  by  Tree  Roots      ...  203 

76.  The  Plow  may  be  Used  to  Facilitate  the  Removal  of 

Surface  Soil  for  Drains 228 

77.  Outlet  of  a  Tile  Drain  Clogged  by  Soil  so  that  the  Drain 

Does  not  Work.             228 

78.  A   Typical  Eastern   Swamp  that  can  Easily  be   made 

into  Farming  Land          229 

79.  Map  of  the  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  in  Different  Parts  of 

the  United  States  (After  Newell) 236 

80.  Irrigating  Olives,  Fresno,  California,  by  Check  System  .  237 

81.  The  Intake   of  the  Sunnyside  Canal,  Yakima  Valley, 

Washington 237 

82.  Irrigating  a  Garden  from  a  Hydrant  in  a  Semi-arid 

Region  (Pullman,  Wash.) 274 

83.  Irrigating  Strawberries  by  Pumping  from  Cache  Creek, 

California 274 

84.  Irrigating  Alfalfa  by  Furrow   System,   Yakima   Valley, 

Washington         275 

85.  A  Barnyard  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  Virginia  .      .      .  286 

86.  The  Ohio  River  Flooding  its  Meadows 287 

87.  Pasturing  with  Cattle 287 

88.  Sheep  at  Pasture 287 

89.  Harrowing  the  Summer  Fallow 320 

90.  .Hay  that  Will  Soon  be  Baled  and  Shipped  to  the  City   .  321 

91.  Clover  Following  Wheat — One  of  the  Commonest  Ro- 

tations in  this  Country 321 


xxviii       LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACING  PAGE 

92.  Loss  of  Fertility  by  Erosion 324 

93.  A  Georgia  Field  that  Once  Produced  a  Bale  of  Cotton 

per  Acre,  now  Ruined  Beyond  Redemption  by  Gully- 
ing           324 

94.  Richness  Running  off  in  the  Bottom  of  the  Deep  Furrow 

Made  by  Ridging  this  Cotton 325 

95.  A  "Break"  of  Corn  Stalks  Used  to  Check  Gullying     .  325 

96.  A  Fifteen  Years'  Growth  of  Long-leaf  and  Jersey  Scrub 

Pines  on  a  Southern  Hillside  Farm 332 

97.  A  Hillside  that  Gullied  Badly  Until  Covered  with  Ber- 

muda Grass  and  Lespedeza 333 

98.  The  Dense  Turf  of  Bermuda  Grass 833 

99.  Soil  in  Poor  Texture 336 

100.  Clod  of  Clay  Soil;  Decaying  Stems  and  Leaves,  which 

Become  Humus 336 

101.  Nodules,  or  Tubercles,  on  the  Roots  of  Soy  Bean   .      .  337 

102.  Cowpeas  on  "Worn  Out"  Cotton  Field 337 

103.  A  Field  of  Cowpeas  Grown  to  Improve  the  Soil      .      .  340 

104.  A  Single  Cowpea  Vine,  Twelve  Feet  Long,  on  a  North 

Georgia  Farm 340 

105.  Velvet  Beans  Grown  for  a  Green  Manure  in  Florida    .  341 

106.  The  Right  Place  for  a  Cover  Crop— To  Protect  the  Bare 

Ground  of  the  Corn  Field  Over  Winter     .      .      .      .341 

107.  A  Common,  and  an  Extremely  Wasteful   Method  of 

Storing  Farm  Manures 348 

108.  The  Essence  of  the  Manure 348 

109.  Pond  Covered  with  "Duck  Meat"  through  Manure 

Draining  into  it 349 

110.  Manure  Wagon             349 

111.  Manure  Pile  in  the  Field,  to  be  Spread  Later    ...  362 

112.  Spreading  Manure  from  the  Wagon  on  Corn  Stubble   .  362 

113.  Buying  in  Sacks 363 

114.  A  Fertiliser  Tag  Taken  from  a  Sack,  Showing  the 

Guaranteed  Analysis  of  the  Fertiliser  363 


SOILS 

HOW  TO  HANDLE  AND  IMPROVE  THEM 


HOOL, 

UOS  AftOKUBS,  CfiLl. 


^ 
CHAPTER  I 

SOIL   BUILDERS 

IB  /  O  2 

MANY  people  who  till  the  soil,  either  as  a 
business  or  as  a  recreation,  look  upon  it 
merely  as  dirt — cold,  inert,  lifeless,  change- 
less. I  have  met  farmers  in  New  England  who  took 
it  for  granted  that  the  land  they  till  to-day  is  about 
the  same  as  it  was  two  hundred  years  ago,  when 
their  forefathers  cleared  it,  except  for  being  less  fer- 
tile. They  had  not  noticed,  or  at  least  had  not 
interpreted,  the  soil-building  and  soil-changing 
agencies  at  work  all  about  them — wearing  away  the 
uplands,  enriching  the  meadows,  reducing  the  rocks, 
filling  the  swamps ;  changing  from  year  to  year  the 
contour  of  their  farms  and  their  agricultural  value. 

THE   WEATHERING   OF   ROCKS 

Every  farm  soil  is  a  complex  material  and  has 
an  interesting  history.  Most  soils  are  a  mixture 
of  ground  rock,  decayed  plants  and  the  remains  of 
insects  and  animals.  Some  soils,  as  the  sands,  are 
almost  entirely  particles  of  rocks;  others,  as  peat 
and  muck  land,  are  made  almost  entirely  of  de- 
cayed plants.  Neither  of  these  extremes  makes  a 
a  good  farm  soil,  as  a  rule.  The  majority  of  the 
soils  in  which  plants  are  cultivated  are  made  mostly 
of  ground  rock,  with  the  addition  of  a  greater  or 
less  amount  of  decayed  plants. 

Rock  has  been,  and  is  still  being,  ground  by 
weathering — the  action  of  air,  rain,  snow,  frost, 

3 


4  SOILS 

heat  and  ice.  Ever  since  the  surface  of  the  earth 
cooled,  making  a  crust  of  rock,  these  agencies  have 
been  constantly  at  work,  breaking  up  this  crust, 
wearing  away  fragments  of  rock  and  carrying 
them  to  lower  levels.  They  are  Nature's  plows. 
All  mountains  and  hills  are  slowly  wearing  away. 
We  can  no  longer  regard  them  as  "firm  and  ever- 
lasting." "  Whole  mountain  chains  of  geologic 
yesterday  have  disappeared  from  view,"  says 
Merrill,  "and  we  read  their  history  only  in  their 
ruins."  The  Appalachian  Mountains  have  al- 
ready lost  by  weathering  and  erosion  as  much 
material  as  now  remains.  Even  within  the  mem- 
ory of  one  man,  a  hill  may  become  noticeably 
lower. 

The  whole  earth  is  being  levelled— very  slowly, 
yet  quite  perceptibly.  The  face  of  every  rock  is 
roughened  and  chipped  by  the  elements.  Drops 
of  rain  wear  away  particles  of  it;  water  freezes  in 
the  crevices,  expands,  and  chips  off  fragments. 
The  air  searches  these  crevices  and  corrodes  them, 
as  it  does  iron.  Everywhere  cliffs  are  lower,  rocks 
are  smaller  and  soils  are  finer  than  they  used  to  be. 
The  big  rock  that  the  farmer  has  plowed  around 
for  thirty  years  is  smaller  now  than  it  was  when  he 
first  "rode  horse"  for  his  father.  The  stones  on 
the  gravelly  knoll  pass  between  the  cultivator  teeth 
easier  than  they  used  to.  All  about  us,  in  the  wild 
and  on  the  farm,  are  indisputable  evidences  that 
soil  is  being  made  by  the  weathering  of  rocks. 
Most  farm  soils  are  still  incomplete — tney  contain 
rocks  and  stones  that  are  slowly  being  made  into 
soil.  A  few,  as  the  clays  and  alluvial  soils,  are 
changing  less;  but  even  the  finest  clay  soil  is  af- 
fected by  weathering  to  some  extent.  The  reducing 
and  fining  process  is  universal  and  ceaseless. 


1.    TAUGHANNOCK  FALLS,  ITHACA,  N.  Y. 
How  many  centuries  has  it  taken  this  stream  to  wear  the  deep  gap  in  the  cliff  ? 


2.    SOIL  AND  STONES  BROUGHT  DOWN  BY  STREAM 

Much  of  it  was  worn  away  from  rocks  and  cliffs  like  the  above.    Some  day  it  will 
be  used  for  farming 


3.    ROCK  SPLIT  BY  THE  GROWTH  OF  A  TREE,  WHICH  HAPPENED  TO 
FIND  LODGMENT  IN  A  CREVICE 

"  Half-way  stone,"  Lansing.  Michigan 


4.    LEDGE  BEING  TORN  APART  BY  THE  GROWTH  OF  TREE 

ROOTS  IN  THE  CREVICES 
Plants  aid  in  soil  building  by  the  pressure  of  growth  of  stem  or  root 


SOIL  BUILDERS  5 

An  interesting  example  of  soil  formation  by 
weathering  is  the  heaving  of  stones  to  the  surface, 
especially  in  the  clay  soils  of  northern  states.  A 
vivid  recollection  of  my  boyhood  is  the  thankless 
task  of  picking  up  stones  from  rocky  New  England 
fields.  This  nad  to  be  done  every  fall  and  every 
spring.  Though  we  might  pick  up  and  cart  off 
in  the  fall  every  stone  to  be  seen,  there  would  always 
be  many  on  top  of  the  ground  by  the  time 
for  spring  plowing. 

These  stones  were  heaved  up.  The  clay  soil 
in  which  they  were  embedded  became  wet,  froze 
and  expanded,  throwing  the  stones  upon  the  sur- 
face, there  being  the  least  resistance  in  that  di- 
rection. So  many  of  our  small  fields  of  a  few  acres 
had  immense  piles  of  stones  in  each  of  the  four 
corners,  the  accumulation  of  many  years.  When 
these  stones  are  not  picked  up  they  lie  upon  the 
surface  and  are  slowly  reduced  to  soil. 

Soil  Becoming  Rock. — The  reverse  process,  of 
changing  soil  into  rocks,  is  also  taking  place. 
Many  of  the  common  rocks  and  stones  that  we 
may  pick  up  in  our  fields  were  once  soil.  Sand- 
stone, which  is  now  sought  for  trimming  buildings, 
is  sand  that  has  been  hardened  into  stone.  "Pud- 
ding" stones,  or  conglomerates,  are  made  of 
travel.  Sometimes  these  rocks  may  be  broken  up, 
y  weathering  or  erosion,  and  the  soil  in  them 
again  become  available  for  plant  growth.  Thus 
the  materials  of  the  earth's  surface  may  be  worked 
over  and  jjgcer  during  countless  cycles  of  time.  The 
soil  that  nol$rjshes  plants  to-day  may  be  the  build- 
ing stones  of  a  future  generation.  The  soil  of  every 
farm  has  an  antiquity  of  no  ordinary  character. 

Extreme  Changes  in  Temperature  Crack  Rocks. — 
Weathering  from  changes  in  temperature  is  as 


6  SOILS 

effective,  though  often  not  as  noticeable,  as  weather- 
ing from  other  causes.  The  changes  of  temperature 
from  summer  to  winter,  and  even  from  the  heat  of 
mid-day  to  evening,  are  sufficient  to  tear  rocks  to 
pieces.  Rocks  are  made  of  several  or  many  dif- 
ferent minerals,  each  of  which  expands  and  con- 
tracts differently  when  subjected  to  heat  or  cold. 
The  result  is  that  the  rocks  are  cracked  and  split 
from  being  pulled  many  ways.  There  are  few 
parts  of  the  world  where  surface  temperatures  are 
uniform  for  any  length  of  time;  hence  nearly  all 
surface  rocks,  even  the  smallest  stones,  and  espe- 
cially those  in  the  North,  are  being  slowly  pushed 
and  pulled  to  pieces  by  alternate  expansion  and 
contraction.  According  to  Shaler,  a  change  of 
temperature  of  150°  F.,  which  is  common  in  the 
North  between  the  extremes  of  summer  and  winter, 
makes  a  granite  rock  100  feet  in  diameter  expand 
one  inch. 

In  regions  having  great  extremes  of  temperature 
daily,  particularly  in  Texas,  Montana,  Arizona, 
and  other  parts  of  the  West  where  rocks  are  sparsely 
protected  by  vegetation,  the  splitting  of  rocks  is 
quite  noticeable  and  is  sometimes  attended  with 
gun-like  reports  and  cracking  sounds  loud  enough 
to  be  heard  many  rods.  Livingstone  states  that 
in  South  Africa  blocks  of  stone  weighing  200  pounds 
are  frequently  split  off  during  the  night  by  the  con- 
traction due  to  the  rapid  fall  or  temperature. 
Many  people  have  noticed  how  pieces  are 
chipped  off  from  the  foundation  stones  of  a 
bunding  that  has  burned.  In  most  parts  of  eastern 
United  States,  where  the  rocks  are  more  or  less 
protected  by  vegetation,  the  cracking  of  rocks  from 
this  cause  is  less  noticeable;  but  it  is  certain  that 
all  rocks  everywhere  are  being  affected  more  or 


5.     EROSION  OF  A  MOUNTAIN  IN  MONTANA 

The  soil  made  on  the  mountain  by  weathering  has  been  mostly  washed  away  to  make 
the  fertile  valley  below 


6.     NIAGARA  FALLS,  CANADIAN  SIDF 

The  Falls  are  moving  backward  towards  Lake  Erie  at  the  rate  of  4  feet  n  year.     The  rock  par- 
ticles worn  away  by  the  cataract  are  deposited  as  soil  many  miles  down  stream 


7.    THE  BEGINNING  OF  A  SOIL  6,000  FEET  HIGH,  ON  GRANDFATHER 
MOUNTAIN,  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  mountains  are  being  worn  away  and  deposited  in  the  valleys  as  soil 


8.     MOSSES  AND  OTHER  HUMBLE  PLANTS  ON  LEDGE 
They  will  help  prepare  the  way  for  the  growth  of  higher  plants 


SOIL  BUILDERS  7 

less.  The  simile — "immovable  as  a  rock,"  is 
not  perfect.  Even  the  rock,  our  common  symbol 
of  stability,  is  subject  to  the  universal  law  of  cnange; 
it  is  broken  down,  re-created  and  broken  down 
again,  over  and  over,  while  it  fills  its  place  in  the 
working  out  of  the  Great  Design. 

PLANTS   AS   SOIL   BUILDERS 

Broken  rock  alone,  however,  does  not  make  a 
fertile  soil,  as  the  farmer  defines  fertility.  There 
are  plants  that  thrive  on  bare  rock,  but  the  plants 
that  are  grown  as  farm  crops  are  of  a  higher  order 
and  cannot  rough  it  like  this.  A  fertile  soil — one 
that  will  grow  large  crops  of  the  higher  plants, 
either  wild  or  cultivated — must  contain  a  con- 
siderabla^mouiiL_QjLhumiis,  which  is  chiefly  de- 
cayed vegetation.  A  soil  made  of  rock  alone  may 
contain  all  the  mineral  plant  food  that  farm  crops 
need,  but  it  is  apt  to  lack  nitrogen  and  has  not  the 
right  texture.  '  \ 

The  Evolution  of  a  Soil. — Nothing  in  nature  is 
more  interesting  tnan  the  gradual  evolution  of  a 
fertile  soil  from  a  barren  rock,  and  nothing  is  more 
significant  of  the  illimitable  wisdom  of  the  Creator. 
The  history  of  soil  building  reads  something  like 
this:  In  the  beginning  is  a  lofty  cliff,  mute  witness 
of  the  eruptions  and  disturbances  through  which 
the  earth  passed  in  cooling.  It  is  bare  and  deso- 
late. No  living  thing  finds  nourishment  upon  it. 
For  centuries  the  storms  beat  against  it;  ice,  rain 
and  sudden  changes  in  temperature  pry  off  great 
boulders,  which  crash  into  the  valleys.  In  the 
course  of  time  there  come  to  be  upon  these  boulders, 
and  upon  the  rocks  and  stones  split  off  from  them, 
lichens  and  other  humble  plants  that  are  able  to 


8  SOILS 

send  their  minute  root  structures  into  the  crevices 
and  live  upon  the  slight  substances  that  are  formed 
on  the  surface  by  weathering,  together  with  what 
they  can  get  from  the  air.  These  lichens  are  very 
acia  and  are  able  to  etch  the  rocks.  They  die  and 
decay,  leaving  the  beginning  of  a  fertile  soil  in  the 
crevices  and  upon  the  ledges.  The  growth  of 
higher  plants  is  thus  made  possible;  perhaps  the 
mosses  gain  a  foothold.  These  in  turn  elaborate 
more  of  the  rock  for  their  own  use  and  in  turn  die, 
enriching  the  soil  with  themselves.  Now  there  is 
a  pocket  of  soil  upon  the  ledge  which  may  be  able 
to  support  such  humble  plants  as  ferns  or  saxifrage. 
Thus  the  process  goes  on  from  decade  to  decade 
and  from  century  to  century,  the  lower  plants  being 
succeeded  by  larger  and  more  highly  organised 
plants,  as  the  rocks  are  made  finer  by  weathering 
and  are  enriched  by  the  decay  of  the  plants  that  they 
nourish.  Finally  the  soil  can  support  mulleins, 
honeysuckles,  or  fir  trees.  Many  years  later  it 
may  be  able  to  support  a  crop  of  corn,  timothy, 
or  apples.  A  fertile  farm  soil  is  the  product 
of  many  agencies  working  through  thousands  of 
years. 

How  Plants  are  Making  Soil  To-day. — Plants  are 
helping  to  make  fertile  soil  to-day  as  they  have  for 
centuries.  Each  year  the  forest  floor  receives  a 
fresh  carpet  of  leaves,  and  the  older  generations  of 
trees  fall  to  the  ground  and  slowly  pass  into  mold. 
Each  year  the  grass  in  the  meadows  and  the  weeds 
by  the  roadside  add  their  substance  to  the  soil  from 
which  they  have  sprung,  thereby  enabling  it  to 
nurture  other  and  lustier  plants  in  succeeding 
years.  Lichens  spread  their  thin  substance  over 
rocks,  and  mosses  take  up  the  battle  where  the 
lichens  leave  off,  just  as  of  old. 


SOIL  BUILDERS  9 

Swamp  lands  and  meadows  are  the  most  con- 
spicuous examples  of  soils  built  mostly  of  plants. 
Lakes,  ponds,  streams  and  swamps  are  being 
filled  in,  not  only  with  soil  washed  from  surround- 
ing higher  land,  but  also  with  plants.  The  little 
pond  that  I  skated  upon  as  a  boy  is  reduced  to  a 
mere  mudhole  now;  the  lilies,  sedges,  reeds,  cat- 
tails and  other  aquatic  and  semi-aquatic  plants 
have  encroached  upon  it  from  the  edges  year  by 
year,  until  now  hay  is  cut  where  I  used  to  catch 
bullheads.  Most  of  the  rich  valleys  and  meadows 
of  northern  United  States  were  once  water-courses 
or  glacial  lakes.  The  weedy  water's  edge  of  to- 
day may  be  a  sphagnum  bog  a  century  hence  and  a 
cabbage  field  in  another  hundred  years.  The 
mangrove  swamp  of  this  century,  reaching  trunk- 
like  roots  into  the  sea,  may  be  the  tilled  land  of  a 
future  generation. 

Steins  and  Roots  Split  Rocks. — Plants  also  aid 
in  soil  building,  to  a  considerable  extent,  by  the 
pressure  they  exert  upon  rocks.  The  roots  of 
trees  often  follow  the  crevices  of  rocks  to  a  consider- 
able depth,  and  by  the  force  of  growth  help  to 
widen  them.  Even  on  top  of  the  ground  one  may 
see  many  examples  of  rocks  that  have  been  rent  by 
the  growth  of  trees.  Among  greenhouse  plants  it 
is  quite  common  to  find  pots  that  have  been  split 
apart  by  the  growth  of  roots.  But  in  many 
of  the  cases  where  rocks  are  split  apart,  and 
a  tree  is  growing  in  the  crevice,  the  rock  was 
was  first  split  open  by  weathering  and  the  tree  then 
widened  the  crevice.  The  acids  secreted  by  the 
roots  of  plants  dissolve  ,a  small  portion  of  plant 
food  from  the  rocks  that  the  roots  embrace.  Rocks 
that  have  been  etched  by  root  acids  may  be  found 
in  almost  any  tree-covered  ledge.  In  these  various 


10  SOILS 

ways  plants  are  contributing  to  the  upbuilding  of 
our  agricultural  soils. 

The  peculiar  value  of  certain  plants  as  soil 
binders  must  not  be  forgotten.  One  of  the  most 
efficient  and  certainly  the  most  notorious  of  soil 
binders  is  "quack-grass,"  and  its  counterparts 
variously  known  as  "Johnson-grass,"  "witch- 
grass,"  "couch-grass,"  and  other  aliases.  The 
evil  reputation  of  this  grass  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  kill,  because  the  long 
underground  stems  may  root  at  any  point.  The 
smaller  the  pieces  into  which  the  roots  are  chopped 
by  the  irate  husbandman,  the  more  widely  and 
thoroughly  is  the  pest  scattered.  This  is  just  the 
reason  wny  "quack"  is  such  an  excellent  soil 
binder;  the  tough,  white  root -stalks  thread  the 
soil  in  every  direction,  soon  making  a  network  of 
fibres,  which  prevent  light  soils  from  washing 
badly.  Steep  banks  or  slopes  are  sometimes  held 
by  establishing  quack  grass  upon  them ;  the  under- 
ground stems  are  chopped  into  small  pieces  and 
these  are  sown  thickly.  Several  other  grasses, 
notably  Bermuda  grass,  are  particularly  service- 
able in  such  cases. 

In  some  sections,  notably  in  Oregon,  Eastern 
Massachusetts  and  Western  Michigan,  drifting 
sands  are  held  by  planting  them  witn  sedges  or 
"beachgrass."  In  Holland  the  dikes  are  planted 
with  rushes  to  bind  the  soil.  Willows  ana  osiers 
planted  on  the  banks  of  turbulent  streams  are 
effectual  in  preventing  them  from  eating  away  their 
banks.  Morning-glories  and  related  plants  are 
called  bind-weeds,  because  the  vines  root  at  the 
joints  and  hold  the  soil  tenaciously.  A  few  horse- 
tails planted  in  a  wet  place  soon  make  a  dense  mat 
of  roots  which  grasp  the  soil  so  firmly  that  it  cannot 


9.     A  POND  FILLING  UP 

Plants  encroach  upon  it  more  every  year  until  finally  it  is  completely  filled. 
Sometime  this  land  may  he  used  for  farming 


10.     A  POND  COMPLETELY  FILLED  BY  PLANTS 

Ten  years  ago  this  was  a  sphagnum  bog.     The  water-loving  alders  and  viburnums  around 
the  edges  will  enlarge  their  area  every  year 


11.     THE  HUMBLE  BEGINNINGS  OF  A  SOIL 

Upon  the  pieces  of  rock  chipped  from  the  ledge  several  plants  have  gained  a  foothold.    When 
they  die  their  substance  is  added  to  the  rocks  and  other  plants  thrive  thereon 


12.     THE  GREAT  USEFULNESS  OK  PLANTS  AS  SOIL  BUILDERS 

Leaves,  stems,  roots — all  parts  of  all  plants — eventually  return  to  the  soil,  adding  to  it 
and  enriching  it 


SOIL  BUILDERS  11 

wash  away.  These  are  only  a  few  examples  of 
plants  that  are  particularly  valuable  for  this  pur- 
pose. All  plants  are  soil  binders  to  some  extent, 
as  well  as  soil  makers ;  they  not  only  enrich  it  with 
their  herbage,  but  also  hold  it  with  their  roots  and, 
if  they  lie  close  to  the  ground,  with  their  herbage 
also.  In  hilly  sections  some  plants  may  be  used 
to  great  advantage  in  checking  erosion.  This 
problem  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XL 

HOW   ICE    HA.S   MADE    SOIL 

Once  the  northern  part  of  North  America  was 
covered  with  a  great  sheet  of  ice,  reaching  as  far 
south  as  Cape  Cod,  northern  Pennsylvania,  Ohio 
and  westward  to  the  Rockies.  Geologists  tell  us 
that  this  immense  glacier  must  have  been  several 
hundreds,  and  in  some  places  several  thousands  of 
feet  thick.  It  slowly  bore  down  from  the  north, 
moving  only  a  few  inches  to  a  few  feet  an  hour, 
scraping  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  carrying  great 
quantities  of  rocks,  stones  and  soil  to  the  southward. 
According  to  some  authorities  certain  parts  of  the 

glacier  must  have  exerted  a  pressure  of  at  least  two 
undred  thousand  pounds  per  square  inch  upon 
parts  of  the  surface  over  which  it  passed.  The 
bottom  of  the  ice  sheet  became  studded  with  huge 
boulders,  which  acted  like  teeth,  tearing  and  grind- 
ing the  rocks  over  which  the  ponderous  mass 
passed.  Some  of  these  boulders,  scratched  and 
worn,  may  be  still  seen  in  the  hillside  pastures  of 
New  England  and  other  parts  of  the  glaciated 
region.  Some  exposed  ledges  of  rock  still  show  the 
deep  grooves  that  were  cut  m  them  by  these  boulder 
teeth. 

When  the  ice  melted  a  mass  of  soil  material  was 


12  SOILS 

dropped,  perhaps  many  hundreds  of  miles  away 
from  the  place  where  it  was  picked  up.  Rocks 
that  could  nave  come  only  from  the  mouth  of  Lake 
Huron  are  found  in  the  drift  or  glacial  soils  in  Ohio. 
Rocks  from  Ontario  are  found  as  far  south  as 
Kentucky.  Great  masses  of  ice  were  stranded 
here  ana  there  over  the  land.  The  streams  of 
water  resulting  from  the  melting  of  the  ice  still 
further  mixed  the  rocks,  and  the  soils  that  the 
glacier  had  ground  from  the  rocks. 

The  result  of  this  ice  sheet  is  the  endless  variety 
of  soils  that  are  found  in  the  North.  Most  of  the 
soils  of  that  part  of  the  northern  United  States  that 
was  covered  by  the  great  glacier  were  made  by  this 
agency.  They  are  technically  known  as  "drift" 
soils.  Where  parts  of  the  ice  sheet  settled  and 
melted  away  there  were  formed  "morains"  or 
"drumlins,"  the  long,  rounded  knolls  so  common 
in  northeastern  United  States.  Since  the  time 
when  this  ice  sheet  covered  our  land,  moving  water 
has  still  further  shifted  and  mixed  soils,  rounded 
the  knolls  and  deepened  the  gullies.  But  most  of 
the  great  variety  or  soil  and  diversity  of  contour  in 
this  region  is  due  to  the  scouring,  crushing,  mold- 
ing, transporting  and  distributing  power  of  the 
great  glacier.  Small  glaciers,  performing  exactly 
the  same  work,  may  be  seen  to-day  in  the  Alps, 
Alaska,  and  other  frigid  regions. 

ANIMALS   AS   SOIL   BUILDERS 

Animal  life  contributes  much  more  to  the  build- 
ing of  soils  than  seems  possible  at  first  thought. 
Eventually  every  animal  and  insect  returns  to  the 
soil,  from  which  it  came.  The  addition  of  animal 
matter  to  the  soil  is  not  nearly  so  evident  as  the 


13.     MANGROVE  SWAMP  IN  FLORIDA 

The  branches  take  root,  causing  the  plant  to  spread  so  rapidly  that  large  areas  of  salt 
marsh  land  are  reclaimed  from  the  sea.     Some  day  this  land  will  be  cropped 


14. 


COCOANUT  TREES  ON  THE  COAST  OF  FLORIDA 
They  hold  the  soil  and  carry  it  farther  out  into  the  sea 


SOIL  BUILDERS  13 

addition  of  vegetable  matter  from  decaying  plants ; 
yet,  when  we  reflect  upon  it,  the  excrements  and 
the  remains  of  all  creatures  upon  the  earth  must 
aggregate  a  considerable  amount. 

Of  no  small  importance  also,  are  the  burrows, 
channels,  holes,  etc.,  in  which  animals  live  or  by 
which  they  feed.  Ants,  moles,  gophers,  wood- 
chucks,  and  the  like  are  insignificant  soil  builders 
as  individuals,  but  in  the  aggregate  they  have 
great  influence.  Ants  are  abundant  on  many  of 
the  lighter  soils  and  often  exercise  a  profound  in- 
fluence on  their  structure  and  agricultural  value. 
Shaler  has  calculated  that  ants  bring  to  the  surface 
of  a  four-acre  field,  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
enough  sand  and  fine  soil  to  cover  the  entire  area 
one-fifth  inch  deep  each  year.  This  is  probably  a 
larger  amount  of  material  than  ants  move  in  most 
places,  although  those  of  us  who  have  had  to  fight 
ants  in  lawns  are  quite  willing  to  accept  these 
figures;  but  they  call  our  attention  to  the  insidious 
and  far-reaching  influence  that  these  tiny  creatures 
may  exert.  Since  the  material  brought  to  the 
surface  by  the  smaller  ants  is  mostly  fine  sand  and 
smaller  particles  of  soil,  they  being  unable  to  move 
the  larger  particles,  it  is  evident  that  the  texture  of 
the  surface  soil  must  be  greatly  modified  by  their 
industry. 

The  mounds  built  by  the  large  black  and  brown 
hill-building  ants  are  often  two  feet  in  height  and 
four  feet  in  diameter.  They  are  composed  mostly 
of  soil  brought  from  below,  mixed  with  bits  of 
leaves  and  bark.  They  are  being  washed  down 
constantly  by  rains  and  added  to  the  surface  soil. 
These  ants  usually  build  a  new  mound  each  year. 
Furthermore,  the  subterranean  burrows  and  chan- 
nels of  ants,  penetrating  as  they  do  from  several 


14  SOILS 

inches  to  many  feet,  have  a  pronounced  effect  upon 
the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  upon  its  aeration. 

The  burying  beetle,  crayfish,  woodchuck,  chip- 
munk, mole,  gopher,  prairie  dog,  ground  squirrel, 
badger,  and  other  burrowing  animals  and  insects, 
all  contribute  largely,  in  the  aggregate,  to  the  move- 
ment and  aeration  of  soils,  the  Tatter  four  being 
especially  abundant  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Go- 
phers have  honeycombed  millions  of  acres,  and 
prairie  dogs  and  ground  squirrels  have  been  no 
less  industrious.  However  injurious  these  animals 
may  be  otherwise,  and  however  difficult  may  be 
the  task  of  exterminating  them  so  that  crops  can 
be  grown,  they  certainly  serve  a  useful  purpose  in 
mixing  the  subsoil  with  the  surface  soil  and  pro- 
moting better  drainage  and  aeration.  Thousands 
of  acres  of  land  in  the  United  States  have  been 
submerged  by  the  erection  of  beaver  dams  and 
their  value  for  agricultural  purposes  has  been  pro- 
foundly influenced  thereby.  The  beaver  is  no 
longer  an  important  factor  in  soil  building  with  us, 
but  he  has  contributed  very  largely  in  the  past. 

The  Important  Service  of  Angleworms. — The 
most  important  soil  builder  among  animals  is  the 
angleworm  or  earthworm.  Of  these  there  are 
many  kinds,  from  the  big,  snaky  "night  walker," 
that  the  fisherman  with  a  torch  finds  crawling  along 
the  ground  at  night,  to  the  tiny  red  ones  beneath 
the  pile  of  old  manure.  In  South  Africa  some 
earthworms  are  two  feet  long.  All  of  them  are 
most  industrious  soil  workers.  After  a  rainy  night, 
especially  in  early  spring,  the  ground  may  be 
thickly  strewn  with  their  castings.  On  digging 
down  in  most  moist  soils  a  labyrinth  of  angleworm 
channels  will  be  found.  These  burrows  go  more 
than  five  or  six  feet  below  the  surface. 


SOIL  BUILDERS  15 

Angleworms  benefit  farm  soils  in  several  ways. 
The  channels  that  they  make  loosen,  aerate  and 
drain  the  soil  to  a  considerable  depth,  far  deeper 
than  the  subsoil  plow  works.  The  small  roots  and 
rootlets  that  reach  deep  into  the  subsoil  usually 
follow  the  worm  burrows,  This  is  particularly 
true  of  tenacious  soils,  in  which  angleworms  most 
frequently  work.  They  are  rarely  numerous  in 
very  light,  sandy  soils  because  these  do  not  contain 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  upon  which 
they  may  feed.  Again,  the  soil  is  fined  by  being 
passed  through  the  worms.  In  making  these 
channels  the  worm  swallows  the  soil  for  the  pur- 
pose of  using  as  food  the  decaying  vegetable  matter 
it  contains.  As  it  passes  out  through  the  worm 
this  soil  is  ground,  as  grain  is  ground  in  a  chicken's 
gizzard.  Charles  Darwin  estimated  that  the  angle- 
worms in  English  soils  passed  through  their  bodies 
and  ground  over  ten  tons  of  soil  per  acre  each  year; 
that  is,  they  deposited  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch 
of  castings  over  the  entire  surface  each  year.  This 
is  the  richest  kind  of  top-dressing.  He  estimated 
that  there  are  about  50,000  earth  worms  in  each 
acre  of  English  garden  land,  and  about  25,000  in 
each  acre  of  meadow  land.  Our  American  soils 
are  as  full  of  "bait  worms"  as  the  English  soils,  and 
their  influence  on  our  agriculture  must  be  fully 
as  pronounced  as  that  assigned  to  them  by  the 
great  scientist. 

\ 

THE   ACTION   OF   MOVING   WATER   ON   SOIL 

No  soil  is  ever  at  rest.  It  is  constantly  receiving 
and  constantly  losing.  The  additions  come  mostly 
from  the  weathering  of  rocks  and  the  decay  of 
plants  and  animals.  The  losses  are  mostly  due 


16  SOILS 

to  the  action  of  moving  water.  Moving  water  has 
been  given  the  gigantic  task  of  world  levelling,  and 
is  working  at  it  industriously  and  successfully. 
The  mountains,  hills  and  knolls  are  worn  away; 
water  carries  the  particles  down  the  valleys  and 
deposits  them  as  soil.  Lakes  and  ponds  are  being 
filled  with  soil  washed  from  higher  land.  The 
flat  lands  about  the  lakes  and  streams  are  made 
mostly  of  soil  worn  away  from  the  surrounding 
highlands.  The  streams  carry  great  quantities 
of  soil  and  deposit  it  in  the  shallows  and  bends. 
The  coarser  and  heavier  materials,  as  gravel  and 
sand,  are  deposited  first  and  the  finer  material,  as 
clay,  is  deposited  only  when  the  current  becomes 
sluggish.  At  the  mouths  of  streams,  where  the 
current  is  sluggish,  a  "delta"  is  often  formed  by 
the  accumulation  of  soil  carried  down  by  the 
streams.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  amount  of 
soil  carried  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  every  year  by  the 
Mississippi  River  would  cover  a  square  mile  of 
territory  268  feet  deep.  At  this  rate,  the  American 
continent  might  be  reduced  to  sea-level  in  four  and 
one-half  million  years.  This  is  but  a  small  pro- 
portion, however,  of  the  total  amount  of  soil  that 
these  rivers  carry,  for  most  of  it  is  left  along 
their  banks.  According  to  reliable  measurements, 
England  is  550  square  miles  smaller  now  than  at 
the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  owing  to  the 
soft  chalk  and  clay  shores  being  crumbled  away 
by  waves. 

Every  stream  is  constantly  changing  its  course; 
many  a  valley  farmer  has  had  the  river  take  away 
a  large  slice  of  his  farm  and  give  it  to  his  neighbour 
down  stream.  Brooks  states  that  within  a  genera- 
tion the  Connecticut  River  has  gradually  taken 
several  hundred  acres  of  rich  meadow  land  from 


SOIL  BUILDERS  17 

the  town  of  Hadley  and  bestowed  it  upon  the  town 
of  Hatfield.  Smaller  streams,  even  the  tiniest 
rills,  are  transporting  and  building  soil  in  a  similar 
manner.  Sometimes  this  action  of  water  is  bene- 
ficial, but  usually  it  is  injurious.  The  loss  of  farm 
soil  by  erosion  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XI. 
^Alluvial  Soils. — The  flat  lands  near  streams  are 
often  flooded  each  year  and  receive  a  top-dressing 
of  rich  mud  that  keeps  them  extremely  fertile. 
The  Nile  is  a  noted  example,  but  many  of  our  own 
rivers,  including  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  fertilise 
their  meadows  in  the  same  way,  much  to  the  profit 
of  man.  The  fertile  plains  of  Egypt,  once  the 
"granary  of  the  world,  '  are  not  made  of  native 
soils,  but  of  soil  washed  down  from  the  mountains 
of  Abyssinia,  many  hundreds  of  miles  away.  All  the 
rich  rice  and  cotton  fields  of  southern  Louisiana 
were  built  by  the  Mississippi  River,  of  soil  brought 
from  the  mountains  three  thousand  miles  away.  In 
some  places  this  soil  is  three  hundred  feet  deep. 
These  various  kinds  of  alluvial  or  water-built  soils 
are  among  the  most  valuable  for  agricultural 
purposes.  In  any  hilly  country  one  can  ob- 
serve this  kind  of  soil  building  going  on  at  a 
rapid  rate. 

Besides  transporting  soil  from  place  to  place, 
water  also  assists  in  soil  building  by  wearing  away 
the  rock  over  which  it  passes.  It  would  seem 
hardly  possible  that  water  should  be  capable  of 
wearing  away  so  rapidly  the  hardest  of  rocks,  were  it 
not  that  we  can  see  the  action  going  on  all  around  us. 
Even  a  single  drop,  falling  continuously  year  after 
year,  will  eat  a  deep  hole  in  the  hardest  rock. 
When  a  volume  of  water  is  in  motion,  and  especially 
when  it  is  carrying  along  with  it  particles  of  soil, 
its  grinding  and  filing  effect  is  much  more 


18  SOILS 

pronounced.  The  stones  on  the  bottom  of  the  brook 
at  home  are  rounder  and  smaller  now  than  when 
we  first  watched  the  tadpoles  there.  The  spring 
that  slaked  our  thirst  twenty  years  ago  has  worn  a 
deeper  channel  in  the  rock  over  which  it  flows. 
Each  year  the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  of  Niag- 
ara is  four  feet  nearer  Lake  Erie.  The  Colo- 
rado River,  which  has  already  worn  a  channel  half 
a  mile  deep  in  the  solid  rock  of  the  Grand  Canon, 
is  cutting  deeper  every  year.  All  water,  even  the 
purest  spring  water,  has  some  minerals  and  gases 
dissolved  in  it,  and  these  help  it  to  dissolve  the  rock. 
Rain  water  contains  small  quantities  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  other  gases,  which  increase  its  power 
to  dissolve  rocks. 

SOILS   BUILT  WHOLLY  OR   PARTLY  BY  THE  WIND 

Soils  built  wholly  or  in  part  by  wind  are  not  un- 
common. In  arid  regions,  along  the  sea  coast  and 
near  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  drifting 
sands  often  cover  and  ruin  valuable  soils.  Some 
of  the  most  productive  farm  soils  in  this  country 
were  made,  and  are  still  being  made,  by  wind.  A 
noted  example  is  the  Palouse  region  of  eastern 
Washington,  eastern  Oregon  and  northern  Idaho. 
Here  the  land  is  a  succession  of  rounded  knolls  and 
hills,  which  are  sometimes  several  hundred  feet 
high  and  are  a  rich,  black,  basaltic  ash  to  the  bot- 
tom. The  native  Indians  account  for  the  hills  in 
a  legend.  They  say  that  at  one  time  all  this  region 
was  a  level  prairie  of  marvellous  fertility.  Wonder- 
ful crops  of  maize  were  raised  upon  it  by  the  red 
men.  One  evil  day  they  heard  that  the  white  men 
were  coming.  Knowing  by  repute  the  white  man's 
greed,  the  Indians  went  to  work  to  gather  the 


19.     HOW  WATER  MOVES  THROUGH  THE  SOIL 

It  creeps  from  grain  to  grain  by  suction.     The  finer  grained  a  soil  is  the  higher  it  can  pull  up 

water  by  "  capillary  action."     Compare  the  height  to  which  the  water  in  the  pan  has 

climbed  in  the  clay  soil  on  the  left,  with  the  coarse-grained  sand  on  the  right 


20.     THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  THE  SURFACE  S<  )1L  AND  THE  SUBSOIL 

The  former  is  usually  darker,  having  more  humus,  and  usually  richer.     The  subsoil, 
however,  is  potential  plant  food;  it  gradually  becon-.cs  surface  soil 


21.     HOW  PLANTS  EAT 

The  fringe  of  delicate  root  hairs  may  IK  seen  on  many  of  these  rootlets.     The  root  hairs 

feed  on  the  outside  of  particles  of  soil.     Hence  the  finer 

a  soil  is  the  more  feeding  area  it  has 


SOIL  BUILDERS  19 

precious  soil  into  huge  heaps,  preparatory  to  carry- 
ing it  away  into  the  mountains,  beyond  the  grasp  of 
the  avaricious  whites.  But  the  white  men  came 
before  the  soil  could  be  carried  away,  took  it  for 
their  grain  fields,  and  it  has  been  in  heaps  ever 
since.  The  more  prosaic  geologist,  however,  says 
that  these  fertile  hills  were  made  almost  entirely 
by  wind,  assisted  by  erosion.  In  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon,  Washington,  and  Wyoming,  the 
clay  less  "dust  soil"  becomes  cracked  and  loosened 
in  dry  weather  and  is  carried  away  by  the  wind  in 
dense  clouds,  banking  up  like  snow  behind  rocks 
and  bushes.  Recall,  also,  the  stories  of  caravans 
in  the  desert  being  overwhelmed  by  sandstorms. 
There  are  numerous  records  of  large  quantities 
of  soil  being  carried  over  a  thousand  miles  by 
wind. 

Even  where  the  soil  has  been  made  mostly  by 
other  agencies,  wind  contributes  something  to  it. 
Fine  soil,  leaves,  chaff  and  dust  are  swept  over  the 
hill  crest  and  deposited  on  the  leeward  slope.  The 
amount  of  soil  that  is  made  and  transported  by 
wind,  in  the  form  of  dust,  must  amount  to  an 
appreciable  quantity  in  the  course  of  a  year.  The 
slope  opposite  to  that  of  the  prevailing  wind  is 
usually  less  abrupt  than  the  other,  because  so 
much  soil  material  has  been  deposited  there  by  the 
wind. 

Still  another  way  in  which  wind  assists  in  making 
soil  is  by  blowing  fine  particles  of  sharp  sand  and 
dust  against  the  rocks  and  so  wearing  them  away. 
At  first  thought  it  would  seem  that  the  result  of 
this  would  be  very  insignificant,  but  in  reality  it  is 
often  quite  important.  In  arid  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere,  the  millions  and  millions  of 
soil  grains  blown  against  cliffs  and  rocks  leave  a 


20  SOILS 

striking  testimony  to  their  abrasive  power.  In  a 
surprisingly  short  time  rough  corners  are  worn 
smooth,  great  boulders  are  undermined,  hollows 
are  scoured  out,  and  sometimes  large,  erect  rocks 
are  completely  filed  off  near  the  base,  where  the 
wind-blown  sand  is  thickest,  and  fall  over.  The 
"Mushroom  Rocks'*  of  Wyoming  are  a  notable  ex- 
ample. In  humid  sections,  the  filing  of  rocks  by 
blown  sand  is  less  conspicuous,  except  near  the 
sea-coast.  The  windows  of  houses  near  the  coast 
are  roughened  and  sometimes  eaten  through  by  the 
natural  sandblast. 

THE   SOIL  TEEMS  WITH    LIFE 

There  are  other  soil  builders,  more  minute  but  not 
less  active  or  influential  than  those  that  have  been 
mentioned.  The  old  idea  was  that  the  soil  is  dead; 
the  fact  is,  it  teems  with  life.  It  contains  germs  of 
decay,  bacteria  that  influence  in  some  mysterious 
way  the  palatability  of  plant  foods,  ferments  of 
many  kinds,  moulds  of  diverse  sorts — a  fertile  soil 
fairly  hums  with  activity.  Countless  tiny  organ- 
isms, visible  only  to  the  eye  behind  a  micro- 
scope, are  constantly  at  work,  changing,  break- 
ing down,  building  up.  Some  are  beneficial, 
some  are  harmful,  some  are  harmless.  How 
many  kinds  there  are,  and  what  part  each  plays 
in  the  complex  operation  of  sou  building,  no- 
body knows,  for  the  science  of  bacteriology  is  yet 
at  its  beginning. 

f  Every  farm  presents  many  phases  of  soil  building 
and  soil  wasting.  The  farmer  should  observe  the 
various  agencies  at  work  upon  his  land,  and  turn 
them  to  his  own  profit.  He  should  remember  that 
the  soil  is  not  dead,  but  alive;  that  it  is  constantly 


22.     A  SEDENTARY  SOIL  OF  NORTH  GEORGIA 

It  is  made  by  the  surface  weathering  of  the  underlying  rock — the  red  shale  here  shown 
coming  to  the  surface 


M     A  TRANSPORTED  SOIL— THE  "PALOUSE  COUNTRY"  OF  OREGON 
AND  WASHINGTON 

It  was  laid  down  in  these  low  hills  mostly  by  wind.     This  soil  often  is  several  hundred 
feet  deep  and  is  very  rich 


24.     AN  ALLUVIAL  OR  WATER- MADE  SOIL— THE  MOCCASIN  BEND  OF 
THE  TENNESSEE  RIVER,   FROM  LOOKOUT   MOUNTAIN. 
NEAR  CHATTANOOGA.  TENN. 

There  are  several  thousand  acres  below  the  "ankle."     Sometime  the  river  will  cut 
through  at  that  point.     Alluvial  soils  are  usually  deep  and  rich 


A  SMALL  BROOK  DOING  EXACTLY  ". 
RIVER  ABOVE 


ME  WORK  AS  THE 


Notr  how  it  is  cutting  into  the  bank  on  one  side,  and  building  up  soil  on  the 
other.     Moving  water  is  levelling  the  world 


SOIL  BUILDERS  21 

swept  by  winds,  worn  and  transported  by 
waters,  broken  and  refined  by  frost  and  air, 
loosened  and  enriched  by  plants  and  animals, 
and  all  the  while  creeping  nearer  and  nearer  to 
a  level. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   NATURE   OF   SOIL 

IF  WE  take  up  a  handful  of  mellow  soil  and  look 
at  it  closely,  we  can  see  only  a  crumbling  mass 
of  particles,  intermixed  with  black  bits  of  de- 
cayed and  decaying  vegetation.  There  seems  to 
be  no  life  in  it.  Put  a  bit  of  this  soil  on  a 
glass  slide  and  look  at  it  under  a  powerful  mi- 
croscope; a  scene  of  constant  activity  is  now 
revealed.  Moulds,  ferments,  decays,  bacteria, 
and  other  organisms  are  constantly  at  work, 
destroying,  creating,  changing  the  structure  and 
the  agricultural  value  of  this  soil.  Currents  of 
water  pass  through  it;  waves  of  heat  quicken  it. 
The  tiny  particles  of  rock  are  ground  and  worn 
smaller  each  year,  and  the  plant  foods  are 
changed  from  one  form  to  another.  The  soil  has 
a  flora  and  a  fauna  scarcely  less  complex  than 
that  which  clings  to  its  surface.  Little  is  now 
known  about  the  soil  as  compared  with  other 
agricultural  subjects;  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
soil,  the  foundation  of  agriculture  and  the  be- 
ginning of  all  wealth,  should  have  received  so 
little  minute  study.  We  may  expect  the  present 
deep  interest  in  soil  physics  and  soil  bacteri- 
ology to  greatly  increase  our  knowledge  of 
this  most  important  factor  in  successful  farm- 
ing. Some  of  the  significant  facts  about  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  according  to  present  knowl- 
edge, are  considered  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

22 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  23 

THE   FINENESS   OF   SOIL 

It  was  stated  in  Chapter  I  that  the  basis  of  most 
farm  soils  is  rock,  ground  into  "rock-meal"  by 
Nature's  millstones,  the  air,  water,  frost,  ice  and 
other  elemental  forces.  At  first  the  soil  particles 
are  very  large,  mere  fragments  of  rock  at  the  base 
of  a  cliff,  but  upon  these  wild  morning-glories  or 
mulleins  may  be  able  to  grow.  Some  hundreds  of 
years  later  these  small  rocks  will  be  finer;  perhaps 
they  will  average  less  than  one-quarterrinch  in  dia- 
meter, and  they  will  be  mixed  with  humus.  The  fin- 
ing process  goes  on  a  few  generations  or  centuries 
more,  until  trie  pieces  of  rock  have  been  broken  into 
such  small  particles  that  farm  crops  thrive  upon 
them.  Nearly  every  soil  is  constantly  becoming 
finer.  All  soils  that  contain  small  rocks  or  pebbles 
receive  from  them  each  year  many  particles  of  soil 
by  weathering,  and  the  size  of  the  rocks  and 
pebbles  is  reduced  that  much.  Even  the  rich 
prairie  loam  or  alluvial  clay,  which  is  apparently 
all  soil  and  contains  no  rocks  or  pebbles  at  all,  is 
becoming  finer.  Weathering  is  much  less  active 
on  such  soil,  however,  than  on  gravelly  and  stony 
soils. 

The  number  of  individual  particles  in  a  fertile 
soil  is  astonishing  to  those  wno  have  not  tried  to 
count  them  under  a  microscope.  A  good  corn 
soil  has  about  280,000,000,000  particles  in  an 
ounce,  while  the  clay  loams  that  are  preferred  for 
grass  often  have  400,000,000,000  particles  in  an 
ounce.  These  particles  are  of  varying  sizes  and 
shapes,  even  in  the  same  soil.  Sometimes  they 
are  uniform  and  rounded,  and  pack  together 
poorly,  leaving  large  spaces  between  them,  like 
marbles  piled  together.  Sometimes  they  are 


lJ*JL>    k^>  '•_*.. 


24  SOILS 

uneven  and  jagged,  packing  together  tightly,  like 
the  crushed  rock  of  a  macadamized  road. 

The  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  differ  in 
size  and  shape,  according  to  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  grains.  I  have  met  a  farmer  who  could  not 
quite  see  how  a  soil  could  contain  air  at  a  depth 
of  four  feet,  yet  he  admitted  that  there  must  be 
air  at  the  bottom  of  his  wheat  bin.  The  trouble 
was  he  looked  upon  the  soil  as  a  solid  mass,  since 
he  could  not  see  the  spaces  between  the  grains 
with  his  naked  eye  as  he  could  in  wheat. 
If  he  would  think  of  his  soil  as  a  bin  of  wheat, 
with  the  kernels  about  one-millionth  as  large, 
he  could  see  how  it  is  that  air  and  water  pass  freely 
through  all  ordinary  soils,  and  to  a  great  depth. 

It  is  of  practical  as  well  as  of  scientific  interest 
to  know  about  the  size  of  the  grains  of  a  soil,  and 
the  size  of  the  spaces  between  them.  The  value 
of  a  soil  for  certain  crops  depends  quite  largely 
upon  just  such  factors.  With  the  refinement  of 
soil  surveys  and  methods,  soil  experts  assure  us 
that  they  will  be  able  to  tell  us  with  a  fair  degree  of 
certainty  that  soils  containing,  for  example,  from 
250,000,000,000  to  350,000,000,000  particles  per 
ounce  are  adapted  for  potatoes;  soils  containing 
350,000,000,000  to  450,000,000,000,  for  onions, 
and  so  on.  At  present  we  classify  soils  and  judge 
their  adaptability  for  certain  crops  in  grosser  terms ; 
we  say  potatoes  do  best  on  a  sandy  loam,  and  that 
an  alluvial  clay  loam  is  excellent  for  onions.  There 
are  limits  to  the  practical  value  of  this  informa- 
tion, for  the  fineness  of  the  soil  is  but  one  of  many 
factors  that  determine  the  adaptibility  of  a  cer- 
tain soil  for  a  certain  crop;  yet  this  one  point  is 
extremely  valuable  to  know  when  selecting  land 
for  special  crop  farming. 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  25 

Fineness  is  Richness. — The  fineness  of  the  soil 
has  a  very  important  bearing  upon  its  fertility. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  finer  a  soil  is,  the 
richer  it  is,  because  it  contains  more  surface 
for  the  roots  to  feed  upon.  The  rootlets  of 
plants  do  not  suck  up  particles  of  soil,  as 
Jethro  Tull  supposed,  in  his  now  famous 
"Horse-hoeing  Husbandry."  They  feed  upon 
the  film  water  upon  the  outside  of  the  soil 
grains.  This  contains  much  plant  food  dis- 
solved from  the  grains.  The  natural  agencies 
that  dissolve  -plant  food  from  the  soil — water,  air, 
etc.,  act  only  on  the  outside  of  the  particles.  Hence 
the  more  surface  there  is  to  the  grains,  the  greater 
is  the  "pasturage,"  or  feeding  area  for  the  rootlets, 
and  the  more  rapid  is  the  weathering.  If  a  small 
stone  is  broken  into  six  pieces,  the  pieces  have 
several  times  more  surface,  in  the  aggregate,  than 
the  unbroken  stone.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
if  every  particle  in  one  cubic  foot  of  mellow  soil 
could  nave  all  its  surface  spread  out  flat,  the  ag- 
gregate surfaces  of  all  these  grains  would  cover 
about  one  acre. 

The  presence  of  small  stones  and  pebbles  in  a 
soil  is  beneficial,  making  it  lighter,  more  porous,  and 
warmer.  It  would  be  a  great  calamity  if  all  soils 
contained  no  pebbles  and  larger  pieces  of  rocks. 
These  are  a  store  of  plant  food  which  is  added  to 
the  soil  from  year  to  year.  Yet  the  farmer  should 
remember  that,  in  general,  fineness  means  richness. 
If  a  soil  is  lumpy,  because  of  lack  of  humus  or 
excessive  moisture,  its  available  feeding  area  is 
greatly  reduced.  This  matter  is  considered  more 
fully  in  succeeding  chapters,  where  practical 
methods  of  making  a  soil  fine  and  mellow  are  de- 
scribed. 


26  SOILS 

THE   WEIGHT   OF   SOILS 

This  depends  upon  their  composition  and  com- 
pactness. It  is  of  interest  to  the  farmer  chiefly  as 
an  indication  of  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter 
that  a  soil  contains,  because  this  influences  its  value 
for  cropping.  The  coarser  the  grains,  the  heavier 
the  sou;  humus  makes  a  soil  lighter.  A  heavy 
soil — one  weighing  over  80  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot — is 
likely  to  be  benefited  by  the  addition  of  humus. 
As  the  term  is  commonly  used,  however,  a  heavy 
soil  is  one  that  is  tenacious,  and  refers  to  texture, 
not  to  weight. 

Schubler  gives  the  average  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  of  dry  soil  as  follows : 

Sand 100  Ibs. 

Garden  Soil  rich  in  humus 70  Ibs. 

Peat  Soil 30 — 50  Ibs. 

The  weight  of  the  soil  on  an  acre  of  land  is  so 
great  'that  if  a  very  small  percentage  of  it  is  plant 
food  this  may  amount  to  a  very  large  quantity  per 
acre.  An  acre  of  clay  loam,  nine  inches  deep, 
weighs  about  3,000,000  to  3,500,000  Ibs.  Suppose 
this  soil  contains  only  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  which  is  an  average  amount  of  that  plant 
food;  the  acre  would  contain,  in  the  first  nine 
inches  only,  3,000  to  3,500  Ibs.  of  nitrogen.  Com- 
pared with  this  amount,  the  30  to  75  Ibs.  of 
nitrogen  that  we  apply  as  a  fertiliser  to  an  acre  of 
impoverished  land  is  a  mere  bagatelle. 

THE   MINERAL   CONTENTS   OF   THE   SOIL 

The  basis  of  most  farm  soils  is  rock  that  has  been 
ground  into  very  fine  particles  by  frost,  air,  water. 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  27 

etc.,  and  mixed  with  the  remains  of  plants  and 
animals.  The  value  of  decayed  vegetation,  or 
humus,  in  a  soil  is  so  great,  and  the  farm  practices 
resting  upon  this  fact  are  so  important,  that  this 
matter  is  treated  in  a  separate  chapter  (XII) . 

The  mineral  contents  of  a  soil  depend  upon  the 
kind  of  rock  from  which  it  has  been  made.  These 
rocks  are  of  many  kinds;  the  nature  of  a  soil  may 
often  be  determined  by  seeing  specimens  of  the 
rocks  it  contains,  provided  the  soil  is  south  of  the 
region  that  was  covered  by  the  great  soil  mixers,  the 
glaciers.  There  is  no  mineral  in  any  soil  that 
cannot  be  found  in  the  rock  from  which  it  came; 
there  is  no  mineral  in  any  plant  that  is  not  in 
the  soil  from  which  it  sprang. 

Soil  is  being  made  from  many  kinds  of  rocks, 
principally  quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  apatite,  zeo- 
lites, nornblende;  and  various  combinations  of 
these,  as  granite,  which  is  made  of  quartz,  feldspar, 
and  mica.  Quartz  and  feldspar  form  the  largest 
proportion  of  most  soils.  The  chief  constituent  of 
all  soils  that  have  been  made  from  rocks  is  silica 
(pure  sand),  which  is  the  principal  ingredient  of 
quartz.  This  is  because  silica  is  the  hardest  kind 
of  rock  material  and  hence  it  is  not  dissolved  and 
lost  as  rapidly. 

The  rocks  of  the  earth,  and  the  soils  made  from 
them,  contain  from  65  to  70  so-called  "elements/* 
the  simple  ingredients;  as  iron,  carbon,  oxygen. 
These  elements,  however,  unite  with  one  another  to 
make  innumerable  "compounds,"  or  combinations 
of  several  elements.  This  might  be  illustrated  by 
saying  that  eggs,  salt  and  milk  are  the  elements 
or  ingredients  of  a  compound — omelet.  It  is  the 
great  number  and  the  intricacy  of  these  compounds 
that  make  geology  and  chemistry  so  complex. 


28  SOILS 

No  one  kind  of  rock  contains  all  the  elements, 
but  all  of  the  rocks  from  which  fertile  soil  is  made 
contain  at  least  seven  of  them — nitrogen,  potassium, 
phosphorus,  calcium,  iron,  magnesium,  sulphur. 
No  plant  can  grow  unless  these  seven  are  present 
in  the  soil;  they  are  the  "plant  foods,"  and  con- 
stitute from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  most  fertile  soils. 
The  first  four  of  these  seven  are  much  needed  by 
plants  and  so  the  soil  is  most  likely  to  be  exhausted 
of  them  by  continuous  cropping;  while  the  latter 
three  are  usually  so  abundant  that  the  farmer  is 
never  concerned  about  how  he  may  add  them  to 
his  soil.  The  nature  and  sources  of  these  four 
essential  plant  foods,  nitrogen,  potash,  phosphorus, 
and  calcium,  which  are  the  necessary  constituents 
of  fertilisers,  are  discussed  in  Chapters  XI  to 
XIV. 

Besides  these  seven  elements  in  the  soil  which 
are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth  of  plants, 
a  number  of  others  are  frequently  absorbed  Iby  the 
roots  of  plants  and  used  by  them.  Of  these  the 
most  common  are  chlorine,  silicon,  aluminum,  and 
manganese.  Numerous  experiments  have  shown 
that  plants  thrive  as  well  without  these  as  with 
them,  so  they  must  be  considered  as  accidental 
or  unnecessary  elements. 

In  considering  the  mineral  contents  of  the  soil 
as  a  supply  of  food  for  the  growth  of  plants,  we 
must  not  forget  that  the  soil  furnishes  but  a  small 
part  of  the  material  out  of  which  plants  are  made. 
We  are  so  actively  engaged  in  trying  to  keep  up 
the  fertility  of  our  soils  by  checking  their  wastes, 
and  by  adding  to  them  fresh  supplies  of  the  min- 
erals mat  our  crops  have  taken  from  them,  that  we 
are  apt  to  think  that  the  plant  comes  from  the  soil 
alone.  Yet  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  crops  that  we 


26.     SAND  DUNES  NEAR  LAKE  MICHIGAN— A  WIND-FORMED  SOIL 
THAT  IS  VALUELESS 

Sometimes  drifting  sand  covers  valuable  farm  soils 


;   - 

- 


*xr>*> 


27.     THE  EVERGLADES   OF  FLORIDA— A  SOIL  BUILT   LARGELY  BY 

THE  DECAY  OF  PLANTS 
Some  day  these  glades  will  be  drained  and  will  become  rich  farming  land 


28.     A  UNIQUE  "SOIL" 

These  pineapples  arc  growing  thriftily  upon  coral  rocks  on  Elliott's  Key,  Florida. 

There  are  no  fine  particles,  as  in  ordinary  soils,  but  some  humus 

and  guano  are  mixed  with  the  rocks 


29.     THE  "PARTICLES"  OF  THE  ABOVE  SOIL 
The  roots  follow  the  crevices.     Compare  with  Fig.  22 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  29 

remove  from  a  soil  comes  from  the  air.  The  air, 
not  the  soil,  is  the  greatest  storehouse  of  fertility. 
From  the  air  plants  get,  through  their  leaves,  three 
other  foods — oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon.  These 
are  all  gases,  the  latter  being  combined  with  oxy- 
gen in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  supply 
of  these  plant  foods  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  in- 
exhaustible. A  friend  once  remarked,  "That  is 
mighty  lucky.  I  have  a  hard  enough  time  now, 
trying  to  supply  my  worn-out  soil  with  enough 
potasn,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  to  grow 
profitable  crops;  yet  you  say  these  are  only  side 
dishes  of  a  plant's  dinner.  If  I  had  to  supply  it 
with  the  main  dishes,  or  fillers,  as  you  might  call 
these  foods  that  it  now  gets  from  the  air,  I  don't 
believe  I  could  have  raised  my  family  of  six  on 
these  forty  rocky  acres  of  New  England  soil." 

HOW   WATER   IS    HELD    IN   THE   SOIL 

All  fertile  soils  contain  many  tons  of  water,  which 
is  present  in  the  soil  in  several  forms.  First,  and 
most  conspicuous,  is  what  is  variously  called  free 
water,  ground  water,  standing  water  or  bottom  water. 
This  fills  all  the  spaces  between  the  particles  up  to  a 
certain  height,  which  varies  with  different  soils,  and 
even  different  parts  of  the  same  field.  Free  water 
is  supplied  by  rainfall;  it  frequently  comes  to  the 
surface  as  springs  and  is  often  the  source  of  supply 
of  wells.  If  a  hole  is  dug  in  any  soil  water  will 
stand  in  it  up  to  a  certain  point,  which  may  be 
several  inches  or  many  feet  below  the  surface. 
This  point  is  called  the  "water  table."  The 
height  of  the  water  table  may  be  judged  in  a  general 
way  by  the  depth  of  surface  wells,  but  this  evidence 
is  not  always  reliable.  It  may  vary  at  different 


30  SOILS 

times  during  the  year,  according  to  the  dryness  of 
the  season. 

We  must  consider,  then,  that  beneath  all  farm 
soils,  at  some  depth,  is  standing  water;  that  we 
plow  and  harrow  above  subterranean  lakes,  which 
are  no  less  lakes  because  the  water  is  not  entirely 
free  but  merely  fills  the  spaces  between  the  particles 
of  soil.  The  importance  of  this  fact  lies  in  its  in- 
fluences upon  the  production  of  a  crop.  If  it  is 
only  two  or  three  feet  from  the  top  of  the  soil  to  the 
surface  of  the  lake,  there  is  not  enough  dry  soil 
on  top  for  roots  to  grow  in  and  the  plants  drown. 
Such  soils  are  said  to  be  shallow;  they  are  of  little 
value  for  ordinary  farm  crops  until  ditched  or 
under-drained  and  the  level  of  the  underground 
lake  lowered  thereby.  The  draining  of  land 
is  considered  in  detail  in  Chapter  IX. 

Film  Water. — Water  is  also  present  in  all  farm 
soils  as  film  moisture.  Above  the  water  table  is 
the  soil  in  which  the  roots  of  farm  crops  forage. 
This  soil  must  be  moist,  else  plants  would  not  grow 
in  it ;  but  water  does  not  fill  all  the  spaces  between 
the  soil  grains,  as  it  does  below  the  water  table. 
If  we  look  at  a  handful  of  this  soil  we  cannot  see 
water  standing  in  it,  but  it  feels  moist.  The  water 
is  sticking  to  the  soil  grains,  covering  them  with  a 
very  thin  film,  as  when  small  stones  are  dipped  in 
water.  It  is  held  close  to  the  grains  by  surface 
tension,  or  adhesion.  If  this  soil  were  put  in  an 
oven  and  heated,  the  film  water  would  be  driven 
off  as  water  vapour,  and  the  soil  would  be  left  per- 
fectly dry. 

There  is  always  a  large  amount  of  film  water 
clinging  to  the  grains  of  every  soil,  even  in  the  dryest 
season.  The  dryest  road  dust  has  some  film  water 
clinging  to  it.  The  amount  of  water  that  can 


30.     THE  THREE  CHIEF  INGREDIENTS  OF  SOILS;  ON  LEFT,  HUMUS  OR 
DECAYING  VEGETATION;  ON  RIGHT,  A  LUMP  OF 
CLAY;  IN  MIDDLE,  SAND 

These  three  are  combined  in  nearly  all  farm  soils  in 
varying  proportions 


31.    A  CLAY  SOIL  CRACKING 

The  soil  may  be  cracked  for  some  distance  below  the  surface.    Much  soil 
water  is  escaping  through  the  cracks 


32.     HOW  FILM  WATER  IS  PREVENTED  FROM  EVAPORATING  BY 
A  SOIL  MULCH 

The  water  drawn  up  from  the  pan  by  this  soil  has  been  stopped  by  the  shallow  layer  of 
loose  soil  on  top.     Thus  it  is  in  the  field  illustrated  below 


33.    CORN  LEAVES  CURLIN'G  IN  A  DROUGHT 

A  soil  mulch  has  been  made.     How  to  furnish  crops  with  an  adequate  and  equable  supply 
of  water  is  one  of  the  greatest  problems  of  the  farm 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  31 

adhere  to  a  single  grain  of  soil  is,  of  course,  in- 
finitely small,  but  the  amount  of  water  that  can 
cling  to  all  the  soil  grains  of  a  field  is  enormous, 
especially  when  we  consider  the  vast  surface  area 
of  the  grains,  in  the  aggregate.  A  good  farm  soil 
often  holds  more  than  one-half  its  weight  of  film 
water. 

Film  water  is  far  more  important  in  farming 
operations  than  free  or  bottom  water,  for  it  is  the 
direct  supply  of  plants.  No  common  farm  crops 
can  thrive  in  free  water,  but  all  must  have  a  large 
area  of  soil  that  is  moist  with  film  water.  Much  of 
this  supply  of  film  water,  however,  is  drawn  from 
the  natural  reservoir  of  free  water  below. 

Water  absorbed  from  the  air. — Under  certain 
conditions  the  soil  absorbs  a  small  amount  of  water 
from  the  air.  The  air  that  fills  the  spaces  between 
the  particles  of  soil  usually  contains  much  water 
vapour;  if  the  soil  becomes  very  dry  it  may  absorb 
some  of  this.  The  surface  soil  may  also  absorb 
water  vapour  from  the  air,  especially  when  there 
are  heavy  fogs.  This  "  hydroscopic "  water,  how- 
ever, is  not  of  much  importance  as  a  means  of 
supplying  plants  with  water,  except  in  a  time  of 
great  drought. 

THE   TEMPERATURE   OF   THE   SOIL 

The  soil  must  be  warm  in  order  to  produce  crops. 
Most  farm  soils  of  the  United  States  are  not  likely 
to  become  too  warm  for  ordinary  crops;  there  is 
far  greater  likelihood  that  they  may  be  too  cold. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  Northern  States,  where 
the  season  is  short,  and  it  is  very  often  desirable  to 
make  the  soil  warmer,  particularly  in  early  spring. 
The  seeds  of  most  cultivated  plants  will  decay 


32  SOILS 

before  they  have  had  time  to  germinate  if  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  is  below  45° ;  the  colder  the 
soil,  the  slower  the  seeds  germinate.  Only  after  the 
soil  has  reached  a  temperature  of  65°  to  70°  do  most 
crops  grow  well  in  it.  The  soil  temperature  that  is 
considered  most  favourable  for  the  germination  of 
barley  has  been  determined  by  experiment  to  be  61° 
to  70°  F.;  of  clover,  77°  to  100°  F.;  of  pumpkins, 
100°  F.;  of  tomatoes,  100°  F. 

The  growth  of  a  crop  after  germination  is  in- 
fluenceu  fully  as  much  by  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  as  is  the  sprouting  of  the  seeds.  The  farmer 
knows  that  certain  crops,  as  onions,  barley,  turnips, 
parsnips,  peas  and  potatoes,  are  "cool  plants"; 
they  can  be  sown  early  when  the  ground  is  cold, 
ana  thrive  in  the  coolness  of  spring.  Others,  as 
corn,  tomatoes,  melons  and  squashes,  are  "hot 
plants";  seeds  of  these  do  not  sprout  well  if  sown 
very  early,  and  the  plants  do  not  begin  to  grow 
satisfactorily  until  there  have  been  summer  days 
to  warm  the  soil  thoroughly  and  deeply. 

The  Temperature  of  Different  Soils. — The  tem- 
perature of  a  soil  depends  upon  many  factors,  most 
of  which  are  beyond  the  control  of  the  farmer,  but 
some  of  them  ne  can  regulate  by  comparatively 
simple  means.  The  temperature  of  every  soil 
vanes  widely  with  the  season,  and  from  day  to 
night.  The  surface  soil  becomes  warm  on  a  hot 
day  and  cools  several  degrees  at  night,  but  this 
fluctuation  rarely  extends  below  two  and  one- 
half  feet.  At  a  depth  of  thirty  feet  the  soil  tem- 
perature changes  little  if  any  throughout  the  year, 
even  in  the  Northern  States.  Much  also  depends 
upon  the  materials  of  which  the  soil  is  composed. 
The  coarser  it  is,  the  warmer  it  gets,  and  the  better 
it  holds  the  heat;  hence  gravelly  and  sandy 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  33 

loams  are  among  the  earliest  and  warmest  of  soils. 
In  Europe,  gardeners  sometimes  put  loose  gravel 
around  grape  vines  to  keep  them  warm  during  the 
night.  But  a  soil  in  which  the  particles  are  very 
small,  as  in  clay,  warms  much  faster  than  sand 
because  the  particles  lie  so  close  together  that  the 
heat  passes  more  readily  from  grain  to  grain  than 
in  sand  where  the  grains  lie  loosely.  For  the  same 
reason  a  clay  soil  loses  more  heat  by  radiation  than 
a  sandy  soil.  Moreover,  a  clay  soil  holds  more 
water  than  a  sandy  soil  and  so  loses  more  heat  be- 
cause of  the  larger  amount  of  evaporation.  Hence, 
fine-grained  soils,  though  they  absorb  more  heat 
than  coarse-grained  soils,  are  colder.  Sandy  soils 
are  "warm,"  clay  soils  are  "cold." 

Draining  a  Soil  Warms  it. — The  warmth  of  a 
soil  comes  chiefly  from  the  sun  and  incidentally 
from  the  fermentation  and  decay  of  the  vegetable 
matter  and  other  refuse  that  it  contains.  The 
temperature  of  a  soil  is  modified  most  by  the 
amount  of  water  it  contains.  Wet  soils  are  cold. 
The  wetter  a  soil  is  the  colder  it  is,  at  least  during 
the  summer,  when  warmth  is  needed  most.  It  is 
the  coolness  as  much  as  the  excess  of  moisture  and 
lack  of  air  that  makes  corn  with  "wet  feet"  grow 
poorly.  The  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  it  takes 
a  large  amount  of  heat  to  evaporate  the  excess 
water  from  a  soil,  and  also  much  heat  to  warm  the 
wet  soil  that  remains,  water  being  a  poor  con- 
ductor of  heat,  the  evaporation  of  one  pound  of 
water  from  a  cubic  foot  of  clay  soil  makes  it  10 
degrees  cooler.  There  may  be,a  difference  of  7° 
to  10°  in  the  temperature  of  a  well-drained 
loam  and  a  poorly  drained  soil  of  the  same 
character.  There  is  one  exception  to  the  state- 
ment that  the  wetter  a  soil  is  the  cooler  it  is. 


34  SOILS 

In  early  spring  we  frequently  have  warm  rains 
that  raise  the  temperature  of  the  surface  soil  several 
degrees.  It  is  after  these  rains  that  "things  just 
jump." 

Fortunately  the  means  of  controlling  this  factor 
is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  farmer.  The  excess 
water  may  be  removed,  and  the  soil  warmed  by 
draining  it.  The  draining  of  land  by  deep  plowing, 
ditching,  tiling  and  other  methods  is  considered 
in  Chapter  IX. 

Influence  of  Exposure  on  Warmth  of  Soil. — The 
"lay  of  the  land"  with  reference  to  the  compass,  and 
the  steepness  of  the  slope,  have  an  important  in- 
fluence on  the  warmth  of  the  soil.  The  soil  on  a 
northern  slope — which  receives  about  one-third 
less  sunshine  than  a  southern  slope,  depending 
upon  its  steepness — may  average  7°  to  10°  cooler  in 
summer  than  the  soil  on  a  southern  slope.  The 
soil  of  a  gentle  southern  or  western  slope  may  be 
3°  to  5°  warmer  than  the  same  kind  of  soil  is  on  a 
level.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  the 
sun  is  always  more  or  less  in  the  south,  so  that  its 
rays  never  strike  level  soil  squarely.  It  is  farthest 
in  the  south  when  the  need  of  greater  soil  warmth 
is  most  likely  to  be  felt.  In  early  spring  a  slope  of 
12  to  15  feet  in  a  hundred  will  catch  the  largest 
number  of  the  sun's  rays,  being  most  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  them.  Many  of  the  rays  glance  off 
from  the  level  land  because  they  strike  it  obliquely. 
The  practical  conclusion  is  that  a  moderate  slope 
to  the  south  or  southwest  is  the  best  site  for  a  crop 
when  earliness  is  desired;  which  is  what  hus- 
bandmen, especially  fruit  growers  and  gardeners, 
have  known  and  practised  for  centuries. 

Dark-coloured  Soils  Absorb  More  Heat. — The 
colour  of  a  soil  is  often  some  index  to  its  agricul- 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  35 

tural  value  and  has  an  important  influence  on  its 
temperature.  A  dark-coloured  soil  is  usually 
warmer  and  earlier  than  a  light-coloured  soil.  All 
dark  substances  absorb  more  of  the  sun's  rays 
than  light  substances.  That  is  why  we  wear  light- 
coloured  clothes  in  summer,  and  partly  why  snow 
melts  faster  on  the  dark-coloured,  plowed  ground 
than  on  the  meadow.  In  Switzerland  farmers  some- 
times hasten  the  disappearance  of  the  snow  by  strew- 
ing it  with  black,  powdered  slate.  Gardeners  some- 
times sprinkle  a  light-coloured  soil  with  peat, 
charcoal  and  bog  mould;  these  are  called  "sun 
traps."  Melons  are  ripened  in  Saxony  with  the  aid 
of  a  layer  of  coal  dust.  But  although  colour  has 
an  important  influence  on  the  power  of  a  soil  to 
absorb  heat,  it  has  not  ability  to  retain  heat.  Schub- 
ler  states  that,  other  things  being  equal,  a  dark- 
coloured  soil  is  about  8°  warmer  near  the  surface 
than  a  light-coloured  soil. 

This  difference  in  the  temperature  of  soils,  due  to 
colour,  may  have  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
growth  of  a  crop,  especially  on  its  germination. 
When  earliness  is  a  prime  consideration,  as  it  is 
with  most  market-garden  crops,  the  colour  of  a 
soil  may  become  very  important.  Dark,  sandy 
loams,  rich  in  humus,  are  preferred  by  market 
gardeners.  Light-coloured  soils  may  be  made 
dark  by  filling  them  with  humus.  Two  or  three 
green-manuring  crops  plowed  under  will  darken  a 
light-coloured  soil  quite  noticeably.  I  have  a 
neighbour  who,  in  three  years,  has  transformed  a 
poor,  yellow  soil  into  a  black,  retentive  and  pro- 
ductive loam  by  plowing  under  four  inches  of  com- 
posted manure  every  fall.  Another  neighbour, 
under  similar  circumstances,  has  accomplished 
nearly  as  good  results  by  plowing  under  muck 


36  SOILS 

drawn  from  a  near-by  swamp.  The  chief 
reason  for  adding  humus  to  a  soil  is  to  improve 
its  texture,  but  another  benefit,  and  one  that 
is  often  quite  important,  is  to  improve  its 
colour. 

The  buff  yellow  and  yellowish-brown  colours  of 
soils  are  usually  due  to  the  presence  of  iron  oxides. 
These  soils  are  most  common  south  of  the  glaciated 
part  of  the  United  States,  particularly  in  the  south- 
ern Appalachian  states. 

The  Influence  of  Tillage  on  Soil  Temperature. — 
The  way  in  which  a  soil  is  handled  has  much  to  do 
with  its  warmth.  Uneven,  ridged  soil,  like  that 
left  by  fall  plowing,  loses  more  neat  than  smooth, 
level  soil.  However,  ridging  may  warm  the  soil 
by  drying  it,  and  this  usually  more  than  counter- 
balances the  loss  of  heat  because  of  the  greater 
surface  exposed.  Rolling  land  in  fair  and  warm 
weather  makes  it  warmer,  but  rolling  it  in  cloudy 
and  cold  weather,  especially  if  it  is  wet,  makes  it 
colder.  Deep  plowing  makes  the  soil  cooler, 
because  loose  soil  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat.  The 
decay  and  fermentation  of  farm  manure  plowed 
into  a  soil  may  raise  its  temperature  several  de- 
grees; it  produces  as  much  heat  in  the  soil  as  it 
would  if  burned  in  the  open  air.  Manured  soil 
is  usually  about  2°  warmer  in  spring  than  unma- 
nured  soil.  Thorough  tillage,  especially  in  the 
preparation  of  a  seed  bed,  has  a  marked  influ- 
ence on  soil  temperature;  it  prevents  the  evap- 
oration of  soil  moisture  and  hence  keeps  in  the  soil 
the  large  amount  of  heat  that  it  takes  to  evaporate 
water.  Good  tillage  saves  heat,  then,  as  well  as 
water,  especially  in  early  spring.  This  means  that 
the  soil  for  early  crops  should  be  plowed  early  and 
tilled  often. 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  37 

THE    VENTILATION   OF   THE    SOIL 

The  spaces  between  the  soil  grains  are  filled 
either  with  water,  or  air,  or  both.  This  soil  air  is 
somewhat  different  from  the  free  air  above  the  sur- 
face, containing  less  oxygen,  more  carbonic  acid  gas 
and  more  ammonia  gas.  Part  of  its  oxygen  is  used 
by  the  plant  roots;  the  other  gases  are  absorbed 
from  the  vegetable  matter  decaying  in  the  soil. 

Practically  all  of  our  farm  crops  need  a  well 
ventilated  soil.  The  roots  of  plants,  except  certain 
bog,  marsh  and  water  plants,  must  have  air  to 
breathe.  If  it  is  denied  them,  because  the  inter- 
spaces of  the  soil  are  filled  with  water,  the  plants 
will  die.  Corn  is  "drowned  out"  in  low,  wet 
places,  chiefly  because  the  roots  cannot  breathe. 
Furthermore,  air  is  needed  in  the  soil  to  make  more 
plant  food.  The  air  penetrates  deeply  into  the  soil 
and  its  oxygen,  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  dissolve 
the  minerals  arid  make  the  soil  more  fertile.  The 
nitrogen  of  this  air  may  be  used  as  a  food  by  certain 
plants  '{See  Chapter  XII),  The  oxygen  of  the 
soil  air  combines  with  the  nitric  acid  produced  by 
the  decay  of  plants,  making  it  a  nitrate,  which  is 
a  plant  food.  Manure  which  is  piled  loosely,  so 
that  air  penetrates  it  readily,  heats  quicker  and 
stronger  than  tightly  packed  manure;  likewise  a 
soil  that  is  well  drained  and  open,  so  that  air  passes 
into  it  freely,  has  more  life,  fermentation  and 
fertility  in  it  than  a  close-grained,  air-tight  soil. 
Air  may  penetrate  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  many  feet, 
depending  upon  its  openness.  Soil  air  changes  in 
temperature  like  surface  air,  and  continually  passes 
up  and  down  in  currents. 

Methods  of  Improving  the  Ventilation  of  Soil. — 
Any  kind  of  tillage  which  stirs  and  loosens  the  soil, 


38  SOILS 

like  plowing  and  harrowing,  promotes  a  better  aera- 
tion, or  ventilation,  of  the  soil.  Plowing  under  farm 
manure,  green  manure  or  stubble  also  has  the  same 
desirable  effect,  since  the  humus  thus  produced 
separates  the  particles  of  soil  and  renders  it  more 
porous,  hence  more  open  to  the  downward  passage 
of  air.  Under-draining,  however,  is  the  chief 
means  of  ventilating  a  heavy  soil.  Remove  the 
water  and  the  air  will  rush  in.  When  the  water 
table  is  lowered  two  or  three  feet,  as  it  may  be  by 
under- draining,  the  roots  of  plants  grow  deeper; 
when  they  decay,  they  leave  little  channels  in  the 
soil  and  through  these  air  penetrates.  Earthworms 
and  ants  still  further  deepen  and  aerate  the  soil 
by  following  these  channels. 

When  land  is  tile-drained,  the  tiles  themselves 
provide  a  system  of  underground  ventilation  of  far 
reaching  influence.  The  soil  of  a  tile-drained 
field  is  ventilated  much  more  thoroughly  than  the 
soil  of  another  field  of  the  same  character  in  which 
the  water  table  stands  naturally  at  the  same  height. 
The  air  in  tile  drains  is  largely  surface  air. 

The  roots  of  most  farm  crops  deepen  and  aerate 
the  soil,  but  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants,  espe- 
cially of  clover  and  alfalfa,  are  particularly  useful 
in  soil  ventilation.  This  is  partly  because  clover 
roots  are  large  and  bore  straight  down  into  the  sub- 
soil for  several  feet,  leaving  much  larger  and  more 
effective  channels  for  the  passage  of  air  and  water 
than  the  roots  of  grains ;  and  also,  in  a  very  slight 
measure,  because  these  plants  absorb  nitrogen 
from  the  soil  air,  thus  making  it  necessary  for  more 
surface  air  to  be  forced  into  the  soil  to  replace  that 
which  is  lost. 

Fortunately  for  the  farmer,  most  soils  are  able 
to  absorb  various  gases,  notably  ammonia,  which 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  39 

is  very  valuable  for  the  nitrogen  which  it  contains. 
Advantage  is  taken  of  this  fact  when  decaying 
animal  matter  is  buried  to  remove  the  offensive 
smell,  and  when  sandy  loam  is  used  behind  cows  in 
the  stable.  The  soil  acts  much  like  a  charcoal 
filter  which  is  used  to  remove  objectionable  odors 
from  water. 

THE    ELECTRICITY   OF   THE    SOIL 

Weak  currents  of  electricity  continually  pass 
through  the  soil  and  through  the  plants  it  nour- 
ishes. In  recent  years  the  effect  of  soil  electricity 
on  plant  growth  has  been  studied  quite  thoroughly. 
The  practical  value  of  passing  moderate  currents 
of  electricity  over  and  through  the  soil  by  means  of 
wires  has  been  demonstrated  in  several  European 
and  American  fields.  For  this  specific  purpose 
Messrs.  R.  &B.  Bomford,  near  Evesham,  England, 
have  19  acres  of  land  with  wires  suspended  16  feet 
above  the  ground  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  steam 
plowing.  The  current  discharged  from  the  wires 
is  generated  by  a  dynamo.  This  treatment  is  said 
to  increase  the  yields  of  barley  and  wheat  25  per 
cent,  and  give  a  still  larger  increase  of  straw.  It 
makes  the  plants  germinate  quicker  and  grow 
lustier.  The  current  is  turned  on  morning  and 
evening  until  harvest.  In  our  own  country,  several 
small  fields  and  greenhouse  soils  have  been  treated 
with  electricity  from  wires  sunk  in  the  soil, 
with  decidedly  beneficial  results.  The  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  is  making  a  special 
study  of  this  matter. 

Most  of  the  beneficial  effect  of  electricity  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  it  makes  some  of  the 
plant  foods  more  soluble;  perhaps,  also,  it  enables 


40  SOILS 

the  plants  to  take  some  nitrogen  from  the  air. 
Only  weak  currents  can  be  used;  a  strong  current 
kills  the  plants.  It  is  quite  doubtful  whether 
the  benefit  derived  from  the  use  of  a  weak  current 
will  make  it  profitable  to  use  electricity  in  general 
crop  production,  for  the  expense  of  wiring  a  field 
is  large;  but  it  may  be  useful  in  greenhouses. 

GERM    LIFE    IN   THE    SOIL 

No  soil  has  exactly  the  same  composition  from 
year  to  year,  or  even  from  month  to  month.  It 
is  constantly  receiving  additions  of  new  soil  from 
the  weathering  of  rocks,  from  the  decay  of  plants, 
the  deposits  of  winds  and  other  sources.  It  is 
constantly  losing  by  leaching,  by  erosion  and  by 
the  demands  of  plant  growth.  It  also  has  numer- 
ous activities  within  itself  that  exert  a  most  potent 
influence  on  its  fertility.  Some  of  these  activities 
are  physical,  some  are  chemical  and  some  are  due 
to  germ  life.  A  few  are  already  known  and  under- 
stood, but  only  the  merest  beginning  has  been 
made  in  the  study  of  soil  life. 

Nitrogen-Fixing  Germs. — One  of  the  most 
interesting  phases  of  soil  life  is  the  process  called 
"nitrification,"  due  to  the  activity  of  very  minute 
germs  or  bacteria,  and  sometimes  called  the 
"nitric  acid  ferment."  This  is  somewhat  like 
the  ferment  that  sours  milk,  and  the  bacteria  in 
yeast  that  raise  bread  by  their  growth.  Although 
the  air  contains  vast  amounts  of  nitrogen,  this  is 
not  used  by  any  plants,  so  far  as  is  known,  except 
to  some  extent  oy  the  "legumes,"  of  which  clovers, 
alfalfa  and  vetch  are  examples.  (See  Chapter 
XII.)  Most  farm  crops  get  their  nitrogen,  which 
they  need  ki  considerable  quantities,  solely  from 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  41 

the  soil.  This  nitrogen  enters  into  their  structure, 
and  is  returned  to  the  soil  when  the  plants  decay, 
but  not  in  the  same  form.  It  enters  the  plant  as  a 
salt  of  nitrogen — a  nitrate;  it  returns  to  the  soil 
in  combination  with  many  other  substances,  and  is 
called  by  the  chemist  "organic  nitrogen."  The 
important  point  about  this  is  that  plants  cannot 
use  organic  nitrogen,  because  it  will  not  dissolve 
in  water,  and  all  the  food  that  plants  get  from  the 
soil  must  be  taken  in  liquid  form.  It  must  first  be 
separated  from  its  partners  in  the  compound,  and 
then  changed  into  a  nitrate  before  the  soil  water 
can  dissolve  it,  and  the  roots  of  plants  absorb  it. 

The  work  of  transforming  valueless  organic 
nitrogen  into  valuable  nitrates,  which  are  plant 
food,  is  performed  by  our  tiny  helpers,  the  "nitro- 
gen-fixing germs."  They  are  found  in  all  fertile 
soil  in  inconceivable  numbers,  busily  engaged  in 
making  plant  food  out  of  all  vegetation  that  is  re- 
turned to  the  soil,  provided  the  conditions  are 
right.  One  essential  condition  is  that  they  have 
plenty  of  food.  All  these  ferments  may  be  con- 
sidered very  minute  plants;  they  must  have  food 
like  other  plants.  One  food  of  the  nitrogen  fixing 
germs  is  phosphoric  acid,  which  is  also  one  of  the 
most  important  foods  of  ordinary  farm  crops.  If 
a  soil  has  very  little  phosphoric  acid  in  it,  the 
transformation  of  humus  into  plant  food  is  apt  to 
take  place  very  slowly.  The  principal  food  of  the 
germs,  however,  is  humus  itself.  This  they  can 
use  only  after  the  leaves,  stems,  or  other  vegetation 
has  been  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil  and 
is  rotted. 

These  minute  plants  need  moisture  and  a 
medium  temperature  in  order  to  thrive  and  do 
their  work,  as  the  yeast  ferment  needs  moisture  and 


42  SOILS 

a  certain  temperature  in  order  to  multiply  and  as  a 
corn  plant  needs  water  and  hot  weather  in  order  to 
bring  forth  its  increase.  The  growth  of  these 
microscopic  soil  plants  is  checked  in  very  dry 
weather  as  much  as  the  growth  of  the  larger  plants 
above  ground.  Furthermore,  they  do  not  thrive 
in  a  very  wet  soil.  The  temperatures  most  favour- 
able for  their  growth  have  been  found  to  be  54°  to 
99°  F.  In  the  Southern  States  they  grow  the  year 
around.  Another  essential  condition  is  a  plenteous 
supply  of  oxygen,  such  as  would  be  had  if  the  soil 
were  well  drained  and  hence  well  ventilated. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  conditions  that 
favour  the  growth  of  these  useful  workers  are 
those  that  are  most  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
farm  crops — a  moist,  well-drained  soil  and  thor- 
ough tillage.  Given  these  conditions,  a  multitude 
of  the  germs  attack  the  rotten  leaves,  stems  or 
stubble  lying  in  the  soil,  or  the  clover,  rye  or  cow- 
peas  that  have  been  plowed  under,  and  soon 
change  the  useless  organic  nitrogen  into  a  nitrate. 
In  order  to  do  this,  however,  the  soil  must  contain 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  some  "base,"  as  lime,  to 
combine  with  the  nitrogen  and  so  make  it  a  nitrate. 
If  the  soil  is  at  all  acid,  or  sour,  (see  Chapter  XIV), 
the  germs  cannot  complete  their  work. 

Germs  That  Waste  Nitrogen. — It  is  interesting 
to  know  that  there  are  also  at  work  in  some  soils 
bacteria  that  accomplish  a  result  exactly  opposite 
to  that  of  the  nitrogen-fixing  germs.  The  process 
is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "de-nitrification,"  and 
the  germs  may  be  called  "nitrogen- wasting"  germs. 
They  feed  upon  the  nitrates,  and  set  free  the  nitro- 
gen gas,  which  may  then  escape  into  the  air  and  so 
be  lost  to  the  soil.  These  germs  are  abundant  in 
wet  soils;  under-draining  benefits  the  soil  in  more 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  43 

ways  than  by  merely  removing  water.  Thus  these 
two,  the  nitrogen-saving  and  the  nitrogen- wasting 
bacteria,  are  pitted  against  each  other;  the  one  is 
a  blessing  to  the  soil,  the  other  may  be  a  detriment. 
It  is  wise  farming  to  encourage  the  growth  of  the 
former  by  providing  the  conditions  most  favourable 
for  them — thorough  tillage  and  excellent  drainage. 

Other  Soil  Bacteria. — These  two  kinds  of  bac- 
teria are  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  germ  life  of  the 
soil.  Adametz  has  calculated  that  there  are 
50,000  germs  of  various  kinds  in  a  single  gram  of 
fertile  soil.  Many  are  beneficial,  most  of  them 
are  harmless,  some  are  injurious.  When  the  roots 
and  stubble  of  a  certain  crop  decay  in  the  soil,  a 
certain  kind  of  "ferment,"  which  is  bacterial 
growth,  is  produced.  If  the  crop  is  grown  for 
several  years  on  the  same  soil,  after  a  while  the  soil 
may  become  crowded  with  the  particular  kind  of 
ferment  that  the  decay  of  the  crop  produces.  The 
result  may  be  that  eventually  the  soil  will  no  longer 
produce  satisfactory  crops  of  this  plant,  but  it  will 
produce  larger  crops  of  some  other.  This  is  the 
explanation,  in  many  cases,  of  "clover-sick"  and 
"flax-sick"  soils  and  other  soils  that  fail  to  respond 
as  they  used  to.  The  practice  of  inoculating  soils 
with  certain  beneficial  bacteria  is  discussed  in 
Chapter  XII,  with  particular  reference  to  legumi- 
nous crops. 

The  limits  of  the  practical  value  of  soil  bacteriol- 
ogy can  only  be  surmised  at  this  time ;  but  it  seems 
not  improbable  that  the  farmers  of  some  future 
generation  may  be  able  to  inoculate  their  soils 
with  different  beneficial  bacteria  and  secure  spe- 
cific and  valuable  results,  much  as  the  butter 
maker  of  to-day  secures  certain  flavours  with  certain 
cultures.  The  field  of  study  opened  before  us  by 


44  SOILS 

recent  investigations  in  soil  bacteriology  is  ex- 
tremely interesting  and  it  may  yield  extremely 
important  results. 

CHEMICAL   CHANGES    IN   THE    SOIL 

The  chemical  changes  that  are  constantly  taking 
place  in  every  farm  soil  are  no  less  numerous  and 
no  less  important  than  the  changes  resulting  from 
the  work  of  bacteria.  The  elements  of  which  the 
soil  is  composed  are  always  shifting  and  changing. 
The  compounds,  which  are  merely  combinations 
of  several  elements,  are  continually  dissolving 
partnership  and  the  elements  join  themselves  to- 
gether in  new  bonds,  according  to  affinity.  The 
nitrogen  released  from  a  nitrate  by  the  nitrogen- 
wasting  germs  may  be  instantly  seized  by  some 
near-by  hydrogen  to  make  ammonia.  The  am- 
monia may  then  be  attacked  by  the  nitrogen-saving 
germs  and  made  into  nitrous  acid;  which,  in  turn, 
may  soon  become  a  nitrate,  or  it  may  escape  into 
the  air  and  be  lost  to  the  soil,  until  brought  down 
by  rain.  The  phosphoric  acid  that  the  farmer 
applies  in  superphosphate  or  bone  meal  is  at  once 
seized  by  hungry  elements  and  enters  into  several 
partnerships.  Some  of  it  is  readily  soluble  in 
water  and  might  leach  away  were  there  not  some 
lime  or  sodium  handy  to  catch  it.  That  part  of  it 
which  is  not  used  by  plants  the  first  year  or  two 
may  get  locked  up  so  strongly  in  partnerships 
with  other  elements  that  it  becomes  valueless  to 
plants.  When  a  potash  fertiliser,  as  ashes,  is 
applied  to  the  soil,  the  plant  food  it  contains  would 
mostly  dissolve  in  the  soil  water  and  wash  awav 
were  it  not  that  it  unites  with  some  of  the  "bases  ' 
of  the  soil  and  becomes  "fixed."  In  fact,  the 


THE  NATURE  OF  SOIL  45 

plant  food  in  most  fertilisers  applied  to  soils  would 
be  quickly  leached  or  washed  away,  if  these  chem- 
ical changes  did  not  occur  and  hold  it  until  the 
roots  of  plants  can  use  it.  Plants  feed,  not  upon  the 
materials  that  we  apply  to  the  soil — ashes,  bones, 
phosphates,  guano,  and  the  like — but  upon  the 
chemical  compounds  formed  in  the  soil  by  them. 

These  and  other  chemical  changes  that  all  fer- 
tilisers pass  through  before  they  are  absorbed  by 
the  roots  of  the  plants  illustrate  what  takes  place 
with  each  and  every  constituent  of  the  soil,  whether 
it  is  essential  to  the  growth  of  the  plant  or  not.  The 
soil  is  a  great  chemical  laboratory.  Numberless 
reactions,  or  new  adjustments  of  the  partnerships 
between  the  elements,  occur  every  hour.  No 
chemist  holds  the  beaker  or  fires  the  great  retort; 
the  changes  take  place  in  obedience  to  natural 
laws,  quietly  and  methodically,  yet  with  results  so 
far  reaching  that  we  can  hardly  grasp  their  signifi- 
cance. It  is  the  business  of  the  chemist  and  the 
bacteriologist  to  explore  this  laboratory  and  report 
how  its  chemical  changes  are  effected  by  the  dif- 
ferent methods  of  handling  the  soil.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  farmer  to  keep  the  soil  laboratory 
in  excellent  working  order,  by  a  wise  and  varied 
husbandry;  and  especially  by  giving  careful  atten- 
tion to  those  principles  of  good  farming  that  we 
already  know  make  it  run  smoothly — thorough 
tillage,  excellent  drainage,  and  a  rotation  of  crops. 


CHAPTER  III 

KINDS   OF   SOILS   AND    HOW  TO   MANAGE   THEM 

SOILS  may  be  classified  according  to  their 
origin  or  according  to  their  composition. 
With  respect  to  origin  all  soils  are  either 
transported  or  sedentary;  that  is,  they  are  composed 
of  materials  that  have  been  moved  by  some  natural 
agency,  as  wind,  water,  or  ice,  as  discussed  in 
Chapter  I,  or  they  have  been  made  by  the  weather- 
ing of  rocks  or  the  decay  of  plants  in  the  places 
where  they  now  are.  In  one  sense  all  soils  are  both 
sedentary  and  transported,  since  they  have  all 
received  more  or  less  material  from  other  sources ; 
but  these  terms  are  meant  to  apply  in  a  broad 
sense. 

SEDENTARY   SOILS 

In  a  general  way  the  soils  in  that  part  of  Northern 
United  States  which  was  covered  by  the  great 
glacier  are  mostly  transported,  while  the  soils 
farther  south,  and  east  of  tne  Mississippi  River,  are 
mostly  sedentary.  Sedentary  soils  are  usually  not 
deep,  because  the  mother  rock  beneath  weathers 
very  slowly,  being  largely  protected  by  the  soil 
above  it.  The  red  clay  stalls  of  Tennessee,  Georgia 
and  other  parts  of  the  South,  and  the  famous  "blue 
grass  soil"  of  Kentucky,  derived  from  limestone, 
are  excellent  illustrations  of  a  sedentary  soil. 
They  fere  usually  very  fertile. 

Other  examples  of  a  sedentary  soil  are  muck  and 

46 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  47 

peat,  which  are  made  almost  entirely  by  the  decay 
of  plants,  together  with  the  little  mineral  material 
that  is  blown  in.  The  plant  that  accomplishes 
the  most  in  this  direction  is  sphagnum  moss.  It 
is  a  semi-aquatic  plant  and  grows  with  great 
luxuriance,  making  a  thick  carpet  over  the 
water.  Eventually  the  whole  surface  of  a 
shallow  pond  may  be  covered  with  sphagnum. 
Other  plants  get  a  foothold  upon  this — rushes, 
sedges,  cat- tails,  cranberries,  and  the  like.  "  Float- 
ing '  cranberry  bogs  are  quite  common  on  the  fresh- 
water marshes  of  Cape  Cod.  Finally  the  covering 
of  plants  is  solid  enough  and  has  decayed  suffi- 
ciently for  small  water-loving  shrubs,  as  huckle- 
berries and  alders,  to  get  established.  The  float- 
ing carpet  gets  thicker  and  heavier  from  the  decay 
of  plants ;  finally  it  either  breaks  and  sinks  at  once 
to  the  bottom  of  the  stream  or  lake,  or  sinks  into 
it  gradually  and  is  covered  with  water.  Then 
begins  the  formation  of  peat.  This  process  of 
pond,  swamp,  and  stream  filling  is  going  on  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  mostly  on  a  small  scale 
but  sometimes  on  large  areas.  One  million  acres 
of  soil  in  the  Kissimmee  Valley  of  Florida  have 
been  made  in  this  way.  The  Great  Dismal  Swamp 
of  Virginia  is  another  illustration.  When  drained 
these  swamps  may  be  very  fertile. 

TRANSPORTED    SOILS 

Transported  soils  are  more  numerous.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  are  the  alluvial  or 
water-made  soils.  These  are  rarely  stony,  are 
usually  level,  fine-grained  and  often  very  deep. 
Water  usually  leaves  the  soil  it  carries  in  more  or 
less  distinct  layers;  this  "stratification"  can  often 


48  SOILS 

be  seen  in  alluvial  soils.  The  largest  area  of 
alluvial  soil  in  the  country  is  the  flood  plain  or 
delta  of  the  lower  Mississippi.  It  reaches  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  southward  for  1,100  miles. 
The  whole  area  is  flooded  periodically  and  receives 
each  time  a  deposit  of  the  mud  tnat  gives  the 
Missouri  its  Indian  name,  meaning  "Big  Muddy." 
It  is  exactly  such  conditions  as  this  that  have  en- 
abled the  valley  of  the  Nile  to  produce  bountiful 
crops  for  4,000  years  without  artificial  fertilisation. 
The  same  process  is  responsible  for  thousands  of 
meadows,  swales,  and  swamps  in  northern  United 
States,  and  it  may  be  seen  in  action  on  the  banks 
and  at  the  mouth  of  every  stream.  Alluvial  soils 
are  made  mostly  of  very  fine  sand,  and  silt  and  clay. 
They  vary  greatly  in  chemical  composition,  but 
are  usually  very  rich. 

Drift  Soils. — Of  even  greater  agricultural  im- 

Eortance  are  "drift"  soils,  those  that  were  formed 
y  the  action  of  the  great  ice  sheet  of  the  geologic 
past.  They  are  distinguished  from  all  others  by 
having  many  rounded  rocks  or  boulders,  which 
were  worn  smooth  and  rounded  by  glacial  action. 
Some  drift  soils  are  assorted  or  in  layers,  having 
been  laid  down  by  successive  streams  of  water 
issuing  from  the  ice;  others  are  not  in  layers,  having 
been  deposited  directly  by  the  ice.  The  deposits 
of  drift  soil  are  not  always  spread  evenly  over 
the  land.  Sometimes  the  underlying  rock  comes  to 
the  surface,  making  patches  of  sedentary  soil; 
sometimes  drift  soil  is  neaped  into  broad  rounded 
knolls,  from  several  feet  to  300  feet  high.  These 
"morains"  or  "drumlins"  are  a  distinctive  feature 
in  the  farm  landscape  from  eastern  Massachusetts 
to  North  Dakota  and  north  into  British  Columbia. 
The  average  depth  of  drift  soils  is  about  30  to  50 


KINDS  OF  SOIL 


49 


feet,  but  in  some  places  it  is  300  to  500  feet  deep, 
and  often  it  is  merely  a  skim  coat  of  seven  or  eight 
inches  over  the  surface. 

As  would  be  expected,  the  distribution  of  drift  soils 
is  very  erratic.  An  acre  may  contain  several  wholly 
distinct  kinds.  There  is  a  field  of  one  acre  near  Lan- 
sing, Mich.,  in  which  about  one-half  of  the  soil  is 
a  stiff  clay,  one-fourth  is  gravelly  loam  and  the 
balance,  which  was  formerly  a  swamp,  is  muck. 
Who  would  try  to  advise  the  owner  how  to  treat  this 
field  as  regards  tillage,  fertilising,  and  draining? 

All  the  variations  in  soils  that  affect  the  production 
of  crops  are  not  apparent  on  the  surface;  the  char- 
acter of  the  subsoil  has  a  very  important  influence 
on  the  fertility  of  the  surface  soil.  The  subsoils  of 
drift  or  glacial  soils  are  extremely  varied.  The  diver- 
sity of  many  of  the  soils  of  northeastern  United 
States  may  be  judged  from  a  report  of  James  Geikie 
on  the  different  kinds  of  soils  that  he  found  in  a  cut 
355  feet  deep,  working  from  the  surface  downward : 

Sandy  clay 5  feet 

Brown  clay  and  stones      ....  17 

Mud 15 

Sandy  mud 31 

Sand  and  gravel 28 

Sandy  clay  and  gravel 17 

Sand 5 

Mud 6 

Gravel 30 

Brown  sandy  clay  and  stones     .     .  30 

Hard  red  gravel 4           6  inches 

Light  mud  and  sand 1 

Light  clay  and  stones 6 

Light  clay  and  thin  block      ...  26 

Fine  sandy  mud 36 

Brown  clay,  gravel,  and  stones  .  14 

Dark  clay  and  stones 68 


355  feet 


50  SOILS 

This  is  probably  more  varied  than  most  drift 
soils,  but  it  shows  the  extent  to  which  the  ice,  and 
streams  of  water  produced  by  the  melting  of  ice, 
have  assorted  and  mixed  the  soils  and  soil  ma- 
terials of  the  Northeast. 

The  value  of  drift  soils  for  cropping  is  very 
variable,  depending  upon  the  material  of  whicn 
they  are  composed,  and  the  way  in  which  they  are 
laid  down.  As  a  rule,  however,  they  are  fertile  be- 
cause they  are  composed  of  materials  that  have 
been  brought  together  from  several  sources,  and 
there  is  therefore  greater  likelihood  that  the  essen- 
tial plant  foods  will  be  present  in  abundance.  They 
are  apt  to  contain  more  sand  or  gravel  and  less 
clay  than  sedentary  soils;  hence  they  are 
usually  of  good  texture  and  easily  worked.  But  a 
drift  clay  or  muck  is  not  more  valuable  or  manage- 
able than  a  sedentary  clay  or  muck.  Those  con- 
taining a  fair  percentage  of  clay  are  more  valuable 
than  those  that  consist  chiefly  of  gravel. 

Wind-built  Soils. — Still  another  type  of  trans- 
ported soils — those  built  mostly  by  wind — is  some- 
times very  valuable  for  cropping.  The  wind- 
formed  soils  of  Washington  and  Oregon  are  com- 
posed of  fine  basaltic  ash.  The  loess  and  adobe 
soils  discussed  further  on  have  been  made  partly 
by  wind.  More  frequently,  however,  wind-formed 
soils  are  of  little  or  no  value,  being  composed 
mostly  of  fine  sand ;  and  moreover,  they  may  cover 
and  ruin  other  soils  that  are  valuable.  On  the 
southeast  shores  of  Lake  Michigan  sand  dunes 
100  to  200  feet  high  have  buried  large  areas  of 
forest.  The  sand  hills  of  Wyoming  cover  about 
20,000  square  miles  of  territory  on  both  sides  of  the 
Niobrara  River.  These  are  a  part  of  the  "Bad 
Lands,"  a  dreary  waste  of  naked,  rounded  hills, 


KINDS  OF  SOIL 


51 


composed  chiefly  of  yellowish  or  grayish  sand,  or 
sandy  clays  blown  by  the  wind,  and  extending  over 
portions  of  Nebraska,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and 
Utah.  The  "Pine  Barrens"  of  Michigan  and  of 
the  Atlantic  Coast  are  other  illustrations  of  drift 
soils  worthless  for  agricultural  purposes. 


COMPOSITION   OF   SOILS 

With  respect  to  composition,  all  soils  are  made  of 
four  ingredients  —  sand,  silt,  clay  and  humus.  No 
one  of  these  ingredients  alone  makes  a  valuable  soil, 
nor  is  it  possible  to  find  any  soil  composed  entirely 
of  a  single  grade.  The  most  valuable  soils  —  the 
loams  —  are  a  mixture  of  the  four  ingredients. 

The  basis  upon  which  the  four  ingredients  of 
soils  are  separated  is  the  size  of  the  grains,  and  here 
an  arbitrary  division  is  made.  This  is  called  a 
"mechanical"  analysis"  of  the  soil  as  distinguished 
from  a  chemical  analysis,  described  in  Chapter 
XI.  The  coarser  materials  are  screened  from  the 
soil  by  passing  it  through  several  sieves,  with 
meshes  of  different  sizes.  Fine  sand,  silt,  and  clay 
are  separated  by  allowing  them  to  settle  in  water, 
the  fine  sand  settling  first,  then  the  silt  and  finally 
the  clay.  The  approximate  size  of  the  different 
ingredients  is: 


Coarse  sand 
Medium  sand 
Fine  sand   . 
Very  fine  sand 
Silt    .     .     . 
Fine  silt.     . 
Clay.     .     . 


-fa     toir 


7U 

i 


to 
to 
to 


•jnnnr to 
-1— to 


TT 
TtVlF 


of  an  inch  in  diameter 


T5T 
1 


Sand  is  made  chiefly  of  particles  of  quartz,  and 


52  SOILS 

all  its  grains  are  large  enough  to  be  readily  sepa- 
rated and  distinguished  without  a  microscope. 
The  grains  of  sand  are  large  because  quartz  is  very 
hard,  almost  as  hard  as  diamond ;  hence  the  grains 
weather  very  slowly.  Sand  contains  very  little 
plant  food,  since  the  spaces  between  the  large  grains 
allow  water  to  pass  through  very  readily.  The 
chief  value  of  sand  in  a  soil  is  in  making  it  mellow, 
porous  and  warm.  Mix  a  handful  of  sand  with  a 
handful  of  stiff  clay  and  note  that  the  latter  is  made 
much  more  workable,  but  less  retentive  of  moisture. 

Clay  is  made  entirely  of  very  fine  particles,  so 
small  that  a  single  grain  cannot  be  seen  without 
a  microscope.  It  would  take  5,000  large  grains  of 
clay  laid  side  by  side  to  measure  an  inch.  Clay 
may  be  made  from  any  kind  of  rock,  as  silica, 
limestone,  mica  and  feldspar.  \Clay  is  exactly 
opposite  to  sand  in  its  physical  properties.  Being 
very  small,  clay  grains  sink  but  slowly  in  water, 
so  they  are  often  carried  long  distances  by  streams 
and  lodge  only  when  the  current  becomes  sluggish.* 
The  sediment  that  settles  to  the  bottom  of  a  glass  of 
muddy  water  is  mostly  clay.  Because  it  contains 
so  many  very  small  spaces  between  the  minute 
grains,  clay  absorbs  water  slowly,  but  holds  it 
tenaciously.  Hence  it  is  adhesive  and  unmanage- 
able when  wet.  Pure  clay  is  a  powerful  cement. 
Clay  in  a  soil  gives  it  body  and  richness  and  in- 
creases its  ability  to  hold  water,  but  if  a  soil  has  too 
much  clay  it  is  wet,  cold  and  hard  to  handle. 

Silt  is  a  name  given  to  the  grains  of  a  soil  that 
are  intermediate  in  size  and  in  character  between 
sand  and  clay.  It  holds  water  well  and  is  espe- 
cially rich  in  plant  food.  For  these  reasons  a  soil 
that  contains  a  large  proportion  of  silt  is  apt  to  be 
mellow  and  productive.  Most  of  the  soils  of  the 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  53 

western  prairies,  and  in  fact  a  large  part  of  the 
grain  soils  of  the  United  States,  are  composed 
mainly  of  silt.  A  high  proportion  of  silt  in  a  soil 
has  about  the  same  effect  upon  it  as  a  large  amount 
of  clay,  making  it  tenacious  of  water  and  of  plant 
food.  Many  soils  said  to  be  clayey  have  more  fine 
silt  in  them  than  clay. 

Humus  is  mostly  decayed  vegetation.  All  the 
vegetable  matter  in  a  soil,  however,  is  not  humus; 
the  carpet  of  rotting  leaves  beneath  a  forest  tree  is 
not  humus.  Not  until  this  is  entirely  decayed  and 
has  become  a  loose,  black  mould,  in  which  neither 
leaf  nor  stem  may  be  discerned,  is  it  humus.  There 
are  all  stages  between  this  and  the  vegetation  that 
is  just  beginning  to  decay,  and  all  have  value.  The 
value  of  humus  in  a  soil  for  increasing  its  capacity 
to  hold  water,  for  making  it  mellow,  and  for  fur- 
nishing plant  food  has  been  stated  in  preceding 
Chapters,  and  is  considered  yet  more  fully  in 
Chapter  XII. 


From  these  four  materials — sand,  clay,  silt  and 
humus — many  kinds  of  soil  have  been  made,  dif- 
fering widely  in  the  proportion  of  each  ingredient, 
and  in  agricultural  value.  The  relative  amounts 
of  each  material  in  a  soil  influence  its  texture,  the 
way  it  responds  to  heat  and  moisture,  and  its  value 
for  cropping  fully  as  much  as  its  richness  in  plant 
food.  While  nearly  every  fertile  soil  contains  all 
four,  most  soils  are  pronounced  one  way  or  another. 
Thus  we  have,  as  a  broad  classification  of  .agricul- 
tural soils,  sandy  soils,  clayey  soils  (which  include 
soils  that  are  mainly  silt),  and  humus  soils,  in  which 
each  of  the  respective  ingredients  predominates  to 


54  SOILS 

a  greater  or  less  degree.  Then  there  are  the  loams, 
which  are  combinations  of  sand,  clay,  and  humus, 
the  sand  predominating  in  sandy  loams,  and  the 
clay  in  clayey  loams.  These  are  the  common 
types  of  soils  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  deal. 
Their  characteristics,  and  brief  suggestions  on  how 
they  may  be  handled  to  best  advantage,  are  given 
in  the  following  paragraphs. 


SANDY   SOILS 


Soils  containing  80  per  cent,  of  sand  and  less 
than  10  per  cent,  of  clay  are  called  sandy. 
These  soils  are  usually  poor  in  plant  food  and  are 
leachy,  especially  if  the  sand  grains  are  large.  The 
finer  the  sand  the  more  valuable  is  the  soil,  as  a 
rule.  In  dry  weather  crops  on  sandy  soils  are 
quickly  parched.  These  soils  absorb  little  if  any 
water  from  the  air.  On  the  other  hand  a  sandy 
soil  dries  out  very  soon  after  a  rain,  so  that  it  can 
be  worked  quickly.  Moreover,  a  sandy  soil  is 
warm,  because  the  large  quartz  grains  hold  heat 
well;  they  are  miniature  soapstones.  If  kept  wet 
and  if  enriched,  sandy  soils  respond  with  large 
crops,  especially  if  the  farmer  fills  them  with 
humus.  Heavy  dressings  of  barnyard  manure 
have  a  very  beneficial  effect  upon  sandy  soils,  not 
merely  because  manure  enriches  them  in  plant  food, 
but  more  particularly  because  the  humus  in  it  clogs 
the  large  spaces  between  the  sand  grains,  making 
the  soil  less  porous.  A  green  crop  plowed  under 
has  the  same  effect.  Manures  and  fertilisers 
should  not  be  applied  to  sandy  soils  long  before  the 
plants  need  them. 

Some  of  the  most  valuable  early  truck  and  fruit 
lands,  notably  in  Delaware  and  New  Jersey  and 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  55 

elsewhere  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  are  sandy 
soils  that  have  been  built  up  and  given  greater 
body  and  life  by  green  manuring.  Soils  known 
technically  as  "Norfolk  sand,"  the  "Fresno  sand" 
of  California,  and  the  "Miami  sand"  of  inland 
regions  are  other  examples.  They  are  especially 
valuable  where  earliness  is  essential  and  are 
adapted  for  quick-growing  crops,  particularly 
Irish  and  sweet  potatoes,  peas,  peppers,  water- 
melons, canteloupes;  also  early  fruits,  especially 
strawberries  and  peaches.  They  are  too  light  for 
wheat,  oats,  rye  and  other  general  farm  crops.  The 
main  point  to  look  after  in  handling  a  sandy  soil 
is  to  fill  it  with  humus.  It  should  not  be  plowed 
deeply,  as  this  loosens  the  soil  still  more.  Heavy 
rolling  compacts  the  grains  and  is  often  very 
beneficial  on  soils  of  this  type.  Liming  will  bind 
the  particles  together,  making  the  soil  more  com- 
pact. 

SANDY   LOAMS 

When  a  soil  contains  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of 
sand  it  is  commonly  called  a  sandy  loam;  while  a 
soil  that  is  70  to  80  per  cent,  sand  is  called  a  light 
sandy  loam.  The  gradations  between  the  two  are 
insensible.  The  balance  of  these  soils  is  clay 
silt  and  humus.  These  are  valuable  soils  for  mar- 
ket garden  crops,  because  they  are  early,  hold  a 
fair  amount  of  water  and  fertility  and  are  easy  to 
work.  Sandy  loams  are  especially  desirable  for 
all  the  trucking  crops  mentioned  as  succeeding  on 
sandy  soils  and  are  fairly  good  for  general  farming 
crops,  although  rather  light  for  this  purpose.  Corn, 
cotton,  rye,  potatoes,  and  the  common  garden 
vegetables,  as  melons,  squashes,  turnips,  tomatoes, 


56  SOILS 

beans,  etc.,  enjoy  this  type  of  soil.  Clover  and  alfalfa 
will  do  well  upon  it,  provided  the  soil  is  deep; 
black  raspberries  and  peaches  also  thrive  upon 
sandy  loams.  However,  they  are  preeminently 
vegetable  gardening  soils. 

In  handling  these  soils  the  important  thing  to 
do  is  to  remedy  their  chief  defects,  which  are  leach- 
iness,  and,  as  a  consequence,  deficiency  in  available 
plant  food.  They  need  to  be  fertilised  highly 
and  are  likely  to  be  benefited  most  of  all  by  stable 
manure,  which  corrects  both  defects.  Usually  it 
is  not  best  to  plow  them  in  the  fall  and  leave  them 
over  winter  without  a  cover  crop,  because  much 
plant  food  will  be  lost  by  leaching. 

v   CLAY  SOILS 

Soils  containing  60  per  cent,  or  more  of  clay  and 
silt  are  commonly  called  clay  soils.  A  large  part 
of  so-called  clay  soil  may  be  silt.  Some  clay  soils  are 
80  to  90  per  cent  clay  and  silt;  these  are  usually 
worthless  for  farming.  Clay  soils  are  exactly  the 
reverse  of  sandy  soils  in  nature  and  in  agricultural 
value.  The  very  small  spaces  between  the  ex- 
ceedingly fine  grains  admit  air  and  water  very 
slowly.  When  a  clay  soil  is  once  thoroughly  wret 
it  is  sticky ;  when  dry  it  cracks  and  bakes-  and  be- 
comes cloddy.  Hence,  such  soils  are  not  only  hard 
to  till,  but  they  are  also  hard  on  plants,  often  being 
too  wet  in  a  wet  time  and  too  dry  in  a  dry  time. 
The  difficulty  lies  in  the  slowness  of  clay  soils  to 
move  water.  The  dark,  bluish-gray  colour  which 
so  many  clays  possess  is  mostly  due  to  the  presence 
of  iron  oxide  or  iron  sulphide;  the  red  or  yellow, 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  peroxide  and  protoxide  of 
iron. 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  57 

On  the  other  hand,  clay  soils  are  usually  rich  in 
plant  food,  especially  in  potash.  Plants  onc$ 
established  in  them,  particularly  deep-rooting 
plants,  are  carried  ahead  vigorously.  The  farm 
crops  that  succeed  most  generally  on  clay  soils  are 
the  cereals,  grasses  and  some  tree  fruits,  notably 
the  apple,  pear  and  plum.  Clay  land  is  especially 
valuable  for  hay. 

The  treatment  of  a  clay  soil  should  be  that  which 
will  remedy  its  chief  defect — heaviness.  Under- 
drainage  will  do  much  to  accomplish  this  result. 
Underdrainage  removes  the  surplus  water  in  a  dry 
time  and  promotes  aeration  and  warmth  in  these 
soils,  many  of  which  are  sadly  deficient  in  these 
respects.  The  fine  particles  of  clay  may  be 
separated  from  each  other  and  the  soil  loosened 
and  lightened  by  mixing  them  with  particles  of 
humus  or  sand.  Barnyard  manure  or  a  green 
manure  crop  will  lighten  a  heavy  clay  soil, 
as  well  as  give  body  to  a  light  sandy  soil.  Man- 
ures applied  to  clay  soils  in  the  fall  lose  but 
little  of  their  plant  food  by  leaching.  It  is 
rarely  practicable  to  haul  sand  upon  a  clay  soil  and 
plow  it  under,  because  of  the  expense,  but  if  this 
can  be  done  expediently  the  result  will  be  gratifying. 
It  often  happens  that  a  muck  bed,  marking  the 
place  where  a  small  swamp  formerly  existed,  is 
adjacent  to  clay  land.  Three  or  four  inches  of 
muck  spread  upon  clay  soil  is  of  immediate  and 
lasting  benefit. 

Extreme  caution  should  be  used  in  plowing  and 
tilling  clay  soils.  If  plowed  when  too  wet  they 
become  cloddy.  There  is  a  certain  point  between 
wetness  and  dryness  when  a  clay  soil  crumbles 
quite  readily;  it  should  be  tilled  only  at  this  time, 
so  far  as  is  possible.  The  texture  of  a  clay  soil 


58  SOILS 

may  be  ruined  for  several  years  by  one  injudi- 
cious plowing,  when  it  was  too  wet.  Unless 
the  soil  is  very  tenacious,  and  "runs  together"  or 
"puddles"  if  left  bare  over  winter,  clay  land  may 
be  fall-plowed  to  advantage,  leaving  it  rough  and 
exposed  to  the  mellowing  action  of  freezing  and 
thawing.  The  crust  that  forms  so  easily  over  the 
surface  of  clay  soil  in  summer  should  be  prevented 
by  frequent  shallow  tillage.  Something  may  also 
be  done  to  improve  the  texture  of  clay  soils,  in 
certain  cases,  by  liming  them.  This  causes  many 
of  the  fine  grains  to  stick  together,  forming  larger 
grains,  thereby  making  the  soil  looser  and  more 
porous.  The  liming  of  soils  is  considered  in 
Chapter  XIV. 

CLAY   LOAMS 

These  are  quite  similar  to  clay  soils,  but  they 
contain  less  clay  and  silt,  and  more  sand.  A  soil 
carrying  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  clay  is  generally 
classed  as  a  clay  loam,  and  a  soil  carrying  40  to  50 
per  cent,  of  clay  as  a  heavy  clay  loam.  A  clay 
loam  usually  has  25  to  35  per  cent,  of  sand,  and  a 
heavy  clay  loam  10  to  25  per  cent,  of  sand.  The 
fair  proportion  of  sand  mixed  with  the  clay  in  this 
type  of  soils  makes  them  easier  to  handle  than  clay 
soils,  and  more  porous.  They  are  apt  to  be  rich, 
especially  in  potash,  not  only  because  of  the  store 
of  native  plant  food,  but  also  because  they  are  very 
retentive  soils.  The  plant  food  in  fertilisers  that 
may  be  applied  to  tnem  is  not  quickly  leached 
away,  as  it  is  on  sandy  soils,  but  is  held  very 
tenaciously  by  this  more  compact  soil.  Crops 
upon  clay  loams  are  not  likely  to  suffer  from 
drought  as  badly  as  on  clay  soils,  because  water 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  59 

moves    through    them    more    freely.     Some    clay 
loams,  however,  are  cold  and  wet.     These  soils 
more  than  any  other  type,  are  benefited  by  under- 
drainage. 

The  clay  loams  are  suitable  for  a  larger  range  of 
cropping  than  any  other  soils,  except  the  loams 
themselves.  They  are  especially  valuable  for 
grass,  wheat  and  corn.  In  handling  clay  loams 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  details  of  manage- 
ment that  are  beneficial  to  clay  soils,  and  espe- 
cially to  underdrainage,  judicious  plowing  and  the 
incorporation  of  humus. 

LOAM  SOILS 

These  are  the  most  useful  "all  around"  soils; 
they  combine  the  lightness  and  earliness  of  the 
sands,  with  the  strength  and  retentiveness  of  the 
clays.  Loams  contain  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of 
sand,  and  15  to  25  per  cent,  of  clay.  They  "work 
up"  easily,  do  not  crust  or  crack,  are  well  supplied 
with  plant  food,  and,  what  is  chiefly  important, 
water  moves  through  them  freely  and  still  they  are 
not  leachy.  Practically  all  farm  crops  grow,  satis- 
factorily on  a  loam.  It  is  especially  suitable  for 
potatoes,  corn,  market-gardening  crops,  and  small 
fruits;  but  grasses,  cereals,  clover,  alfalfa,  and 
cotton,  find  it  congenial.  It  requires  no  special 
treatment,  except  such  attention  to  good  tillage, 
drainage,  and  the  addition  of  humus  as  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  best  farm  practice  everywhere. 

GRAVELLY  AND  STONY  LOAMS 

These  are  sandy  loams,  clay  loams,  or  loams 
with  an  admixture  of  gravel  or  stones ;  all  pieces  of 


60  SOILS 

rock  from  1-25  of  an  inch  in  diameter  up  to  two  or 
three  inches  are  gravel — larger  pieces  are  stones. 
Gravelly  and  stony  loams  are  most  common  in  the 
North,  especially  in  the  Northeastern  states,  where 
they  were  formed  by  the  work  of  glaciers.  Most  of 
the  pieces  of  rock  are  worn  smooth.  The  presence 
of  a  large  quantity  of  small  stones  in  a  soil  makes  it 
warmer,  for  rock  absorbs  heat  more  freely  than 
soil,  and  loses  it  more  slowly,  thus  keeping  the  soil 
warmer  at  night.  If  the  stones  are  numerous 
and  large,  however,  the  increased  difficulty  of 
tillage  may  more  than  offset  the  advantage 
of  earliness.  For  this  reason  a  gravelly  loam 
is  usually  more  valuable  than  a  stony  loam. 
A  gravelly  or  stony  sandy  loam  is  sought  when 
extreme  earliness  is  desired.  Some  of  the  most 
profitable  strawberry  plantations  in  New  York  are 
on  this  type  of  soils.  As  a  rule  they  are  better 
adapted  for  fruits,  especially  small  fruits,  than  for 
staple  farm  crops. 

PEAT   AND   MUCK   SOILS 

Peat  and  muck  are  the  black  soils  produced 
when  a  luxuriant  growth  of  plants  decays  slowly 
under  water  for  many  years.  When  the  plants  are 
but  partially  decayed,  so  that  the  soil  is  very 
spongy  and  fibrous,  it  is  called  peat.  When  decay 
has  progressed  further,  and  especially  when  the 
soil  is  alternately  submerged  and  exposed  to  the 
air,  becoming  finer,  blacker  and  no  longer  fibrous, 
it  is  called  muck.  Muck  is  an  advanced  stage  of 
peat.  Both  are  passing  through  the  same  process 
by  which  coal  has  been  formed. 

Peat  and  muck  swamps  and  bogs  are  found  all 
over  the  eastern  United  States,  and  in  many  parts 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  61 

of  the  West  except  in  the  arid  regions.  Most  of 
our  fresh  water  marshes  are  muck  or  peat.  They 
are  not  so  numerous  here,  however,  as  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  especially  in  Ireland,  one-tenth 
of  which  is  said  to  be  peat  bogs.  These 
soils  are  being  made  to-day,  where  shallow  lakes, 
ponds,  streams,  and  swamps  are  being  filled  by  the 

frowth  of  plants,  especially  the  sphagnum  moss; 
ut  less  peat  is  being  made  now  than   during  a 
period   in   the   earth's   history  when   rainfall   was 
more  abundant. 

The  Value  of  Peat  and  Muck  Soils. — The  value 
of  peat  and  muck  soils  for  farming  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  they  contain 
and  upon  their  drainage.  Some  of  these  soils  are 
nearly  100  per  cent,  humus,  others  are  but  30 
per  cent,  humus.  Considerable  fine  rock  or  mineral 
soil  may  be  blown  upon  peat  or  muck  land;  the 
more  of  this  the  better.  Muck,  being  further  ad- 
vanced in  decay  than  peat,  is  more  apt  to  become 
serviceable  as  a  farm  soil  than  peat;  it  is,  moreover, 
more  compact  and  usually  contains  more  mineral 
soil,  having  been  above  water  longer. 

Many  muck  and  some  peat  soils  need  only  to  be 
drained  in  order  to  become  valuable  for  cropping. 
Thousands  of  acres  of  land,  especially  fresh  marsh 
land,  have  been  reclaimed  in  this  way.  In  Michi- 
gan and  Ohio  reclaimed  swamp  lands  are  largely 
used  for  growing  celery  and  onions.  Open  ditches 
are  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose,  these 
soils  being  so  loose  that  tile  drainage  is  usually 
impracticable  at  first,  except  for  the  most  earthy 
mucks.  The  result  of  drainage  is  to  lower  the 
water  table  so  that  air  can  penetrate  the  soil.  Many 
peats,  and  some  mucks  in  which  the  decay  has  not 
progressed  far,  do  not  make  good  farm  land,  even 


62  SOILS 

after  they  are  drained;  they  become  very  dry  and 
chalky,  having  scarcely  more  power  to  draw  up  the 
free  water  beneath  by  capillary  action  than  a  pile  of 
chips.  Not  until  several  years  after  drainage,  when 
the  fibrous  matter  has  been  broken  down  and  made 
into  fine  soil,  are  some  peat  and  muck  soils  able  to 
grow  profitable  crops. 

When  well  drained  and  sufficiently  fined  to  per- 
mit the  free  movement  of  water  upward,  these  soils 
are  especially  suitable  for  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
celery  and  peppermint.  On  the  finest  of  mucks  the 

frasses  and  a  variety  of  vegetables  are  successful, 
n  southwestern  Massachusetts,  and  in  New  Jersey, 
Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  some  other  sections,  peat 
and  muck  bogs  are  ditched,  the  surface  covered 
with  3  to  6  inches  of  sand,  and  then  planted  with 
cranberries. 

In  handling  muck  and  peat  soils  one  must 
remember  that  they  are  largely  humus  and  always 
contain  a  large  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  the  chief  fer- 
tilising element  produced  by  the  decay  of  vegeta- 
tion. In  fact,  muck  often  contains  as  much  ni- 
trogen as  barn  manure,  although  but  little  of  this 
is  in  available  form,  being  in  the  form  of 
organic  nitrogen.  These  soils  usually  need 
fertilising  with  the  mineral  plant  foods — potash, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  lime.  Wood  ashes  are  espe- 
cially beneficial  to  muck  soils.  As  a  rule  they  do 
not  respond  to  manuring  as  satisfactorily  as  soils 
that  contain  more  mineral  matter. 

LOESS  SOILS 

The  name  "loess"  is  applied  chiefly  to  large 
areas  of  soils  that  have  been  carried  to  their 
present  resting  places  by  water  or  wind,  and  which 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  63 

show  no  layers,  being  of  the  same  nature  through- 
out. The  largest  deposit  of  loess  soils  in  the 
United  States  is  the  alluvial  loess  of  the  great 
Mississippi  Valley,  including  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  the  "prairie"  soil  of  the  central  states. 
They  are  found  in  southern  Michigan,  Ohio,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  Tennessee, 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, Louisiana.  Smaller  areas  of  alluvial  loess 
soils  are  found  in  the  valleys  of  the  Connecticut, 
Ohio,  and  other  rivers;  while  wind-formed  loess 
soils  are  found  in  California,  Washington,  Oregon 
and  many  other  western  states.  There  are  large 
deposits  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  the  famous 
steppes  of  Russia  and  the  inland  plains  of  China. 
Loess  soils  are  noted  for  their  great  depth  and 
remarkable  fertility.  In  China  they  have  pro- 
duced bountiful  crops  for  over  three  thousand 
years,  with  little  apparent  diminution  of  fer- 
tility. The  richness  of  our  own  loess  lands 
in  the  central  West  is  well  known.  There 
the  soil  is  from  5  to  150  feet  deep.  Although 
loess  soils  may  differ  very  widely  chemically, 
they  are  all  about  the  same  physically — a  fine 
silt  or  clay,  possessing  great  tenacity.  Most 
of  the  loess  soil  of  the  West  contains  from 
55  to  75  per  cent,  of  silt  and  from  6  to  15  per 
cent,  of  clay. 

ADOBE    SOILS 

These  peculiar  soils  are  found  only  in  the  arid 
West,  especially  in  Utah,  Arizona,  southern 
California,  New  Mexico,  western  Texas,  and 
in  the  elevated  valleys  of  Colorado  and  New 
Mexico.  They  consist  very  largely  of  clay  and 
silt,  partly  worn  down  from  surrounding  high  land 


64  SOILS 

and  partly  blown  there  from  elsewhere.  They 
are  exceedingly  sticky  when  wet  and  bake  very 
hard  when  dry,  so  that  they  are  used  for  building 
purposes.  This  makes  them  very  hard  to  work; 
in  short,  they  are  aggravated  clay  soils.  When 
they  are  wet  enough  they  are  remarkably  pro- 
ductive, as  they  are  unusually  rich  in  plant  food. 
Some  adobe  soils  are  very  deep — those  in  some  of 
the  valleys  of  the  arid  regions  being  over  2,000 
feet  deep. 

Adobe  soils  are  usually  light  buff  or  gray,  ex- 
cept when  they  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
humus,  which  makes  them  darker.  They  are  very 
fine  grained;  no  grit  is  felt  when  adobe  is  rubbed 
between  the  fingers.  The  depth,  fineness  and 
virginal  fertility  of  adobe  soils,  since  they  have  lost 
very  little  from  leaching,  makes  them  wonderfully 
productive.  These  soils  are  quite  similar  to  the 
loess  soils  of  the  Central  West. 

SALT   MARSH    SOILS 

All  along  the  Atlantic  Coast,  and  especially  in 
New  England,  are  thousands  of  acres  of  marsh 
land  that  some  day  will  be  used  for  farm  crops. 
They  are  made  largely  from  soil  that  has  been 
worn  by  the  sea  from  the  rocks  on  the  coast.  Each 
wave  that  curls  its  crest  over  the  "stern  and  rock- 
bound  coast"  wears  it  away  to  some  extent,  as  is 
witnessed  by  the  honeycombed  rocks  at  Marble- 
head  and  elsewhere.  The  headlands  that  project 
into  the  sea  are  worn  down  and  strewn  upon  the 
beach  as  sand.  Each  wave  that  comes  tumbling 
in  grinds  these  rock  particles  a  little  finer — we  can 
hear  them  rustle  and  grind  against  each  other  in 
the  undertow.  After  a  while  the  coarse  sand  of  the 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  65 

beach  becomes  fine  sand  or  mud;  it  may  then  be 
carried  out  to  sea  by  the  undertow  or  deposited 
along  the  inlets  and  bays  by  coastwise  currents. 
The  latter  case  marks  the  beginning  of  a  salt 
marsh  soil.  As  soon  as  it  gets  fairly  well  started, 
though  still  covered  with  water,  the  soil  is  occupied 
with  a  dense  growth  of  eel-grass.  This  accumulates 
more  soil;  sea  weed,  dead  fish  and  other  refuse 
collect  and  the  soil  thickens  rapidly.  Finally  it  is 
raised  above  the  tides  and  the  eel-grass  gives  place 
to  other  grasses  which  slowly  extend  to  the  beach 
over  the  mud  flats.  In  the  course  of  time  farmers 
cut  from  these  flats  "salt  hay,"  which  is  much 
relished  by  cattle. 

All  salt  marshes  are  likely  to  be  overflowed 
occasionally.  It  is  necessary  to  drain  them  thor- 
oughly and  to  prevent  the  overflow  of  salt  water  by 
diking  before  they  can  be  used  for  ordinary  farm 
crops,  which  object  to  so  much  salt  in  the  soil. 
It  is  stated  that  there  are  over  200,000  acres  of  very 
rich  salt  marsh  land  between  New  York  City  and 
Portland,  Me.,  which  would  be  worth  $20,000,000 
if  reclaimed;  and  that  there  are  3,000,000  acres  on 
the  entire  Atlantic  Coast  that  could  be  reclaimed. 
The  cost  of  diking  and  draining  these  lands  should 
not  be  over  $50  per  acre.  A  considerable  area  of 
salt  marsh  soils  has  already  been  reclaimed. 

Salt  marsh  soils  are  particularly  valuable  for 
growing  grass,  onions,  cabbage,  celery;  where 
they  contain  a  large  amount  of  muck  cranberries 
are  successful. 

THE   PROBLEM   OF   ALKALI   SOILS 

^s 

Between  the  Missouri  River  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  parts  of  California,  and  in  a  few 


66  SOILS 

other  parts  of  the  West,  are  large  areas  of  alkali 
soils.  They  are  found  almost  entirely  in  arid  or 
semi-arid  regions.  These  soils  produce  an  insignifi- 
cant growth  of  a  few  native  plants  and  are  wholly 
unfit  for  cropping  until  properly  treated.  They  are 
called  alkali  soils  because  they  contain  large 
quantities  of  various  salts,  mostly  common  salt  and 
carbonate  of  soda,  which  is  ordinary  washing  soda. 
Otherwise  they  are  normal.  Thousands  of  acres  of 
once  valuable  land  have  been  made  too  alkaline  for 
crops  by  seepage  waters.  The  surface  of  alkali  soils 
is  often  covered  with  crystals  of  the  salts,  making  it 
look  whitish.  This  is  caused  by  the  evaporation 
of  water  from  the  soil,  leaving  behind  on  the  sur- 
face the  salt  that  was  dissolved  in  it.  Over-irri- 
gation, especially  on  heavy  lands,  often  makes  them 
alkaline  and  may  ruin  them.  But  all  soils  that  are 
white  on  the  surface  are  not  alkali.  Excellent 
limestone  soils  have  sometimes  been  mistaken  for 
alkali,  because  they  had  a  coating  of  carbonate  of 
lime  on  the  surface.  Quite  frequently  there  are 
alkali  spots  in  an  otherwise  fertile  field,  the  spots 
varying  from  several  feet  to  several  acres  in  extent. 

There  are  two  common  types  of  alkali  soils, 
"black  alkali'*  and  "white  alkali."  The  former 
contains  chiefly  carbonate  of  soda,  which  de- 
composes the  humus  in  the  soil  and  makes  it  very 
black;  while  the  latter  is  a  mixture  of  several  salts, 
chiefly  common  salt  and  sulphate  of  soda.  Black 
alkali  is  much  more  injurious  to  plants  than  white. 

The  effect  of  alkali  upon  plants  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  kind  of  plant  and  upon  the  amount  of 
salt  in  the  first  foot  or  two  of  soil.  Some  plants 
cannot  stand  alkali  at  all,  some  are  tolerant  of  it, 
a  very  few  prefer  it.  The  plants  that  tolerate  it 
are  mostly  native  salt  busnes  and  grasses.  Of 


J 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  67 

cultivated  plants,  sugar  beets,  alfalfa  and  sweet 
clover  are  most  tolerant,  especially  sugar  beets. 
The  grains  are  impatient  of  it,  but  rye  and  barley 
appear  to  stand  it  better  than  the  other  cereals. 
Practically  all  the  common  farm  crops  will  not 
thrive  in  alkali  soils,  but  after  the  salts  are  removed 
from  these  soils  they  are  found  to  be  remarkably 
fertile  and  produce  very  large  crops. 

How  to  Treat  Alkali  Soils. — There  are  two 
methods  of  improving  alkali  soils;  the  alkali  may 
be  removed,  or  it  may  be  changed  into  another 
form.  The  most  common  and  most  efficient  way 
of  removing  alkali,  whenever  non-alkaline  water 
can  be  had  in  abundance,  is  to  irrigate  the  land  and 
drain  it.  If  persisted  in,  irrigation  and  drainage 
usually  effect  a  permanent  cure.  Irrigation  washes 
the  salt  out  of  the  soil  and  drainage  carries  it  off. 
The  waters  of  some  streams  and  wells,  however, 
contain  much  alkali  and  are  not  suitable  for  irri- 
gation. Irrigation  without  drainage  may  make 
a  soil  more  alkaline,  by  bringing  more  of  the  salts 
to  the  surface.  Under-drainage  alone  is  usually  ef- 
fective, especially  for  small  areas  that  can  be  drained 
at  slight  expense,  but  it  is  too  expensive  to  be  prac- 
ticable except  for  land  having  a  high  valuation. 

In  irrigating  alkali  land  the  entire  surface  of  the 
soil  should  be  flooded  to  remove  the  salts. 
In  experiments  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  in  Utah  a 
40-acre  tract  of  waste  land  containing  21-2  per  cent, 
of  salt,  or  6,650  tons  to  a  depth  of  4  feet,  was  flooded 
with  57  inches  of  water  per  year.  Of  this  amount 
45  inches  were  recovered  as  drainage,  and  this 
drainage  water  contained  2,401  tons  of  salt.  In 
other  words  one-third  of  the  alkali  was  removed  in 
one  year.  The  cost  of  this  work  is  from  $16  to 
$30  per  acre. 


68  SOILS 

The  injurious  salt  may  be  changed  into  another 
material  that  is  less  harmful  by  dressing  the  soil 
with  gypsum,  or  land  plaster.  An  application  of 
four  to  six  hundred  pounds  per  acre  is  considered 
sufficient.  This  treatment  is  valuable  only  for 
black  alkali.  When  a  quarter  or  more  of  the  salt 
is  on  or  near  the  surface,  as  is  often  the  case,  it  is 
sometimes  practicable  to  scrape  the  surface  and 
cast  the  scrapings  elsewhere. 

Certain  plants,  notably  greasewood  and  the 
Australian  Salt-bush,  thrive  on  alkali  soils  and 
take  large  quantities  of  salts  from  them.  Occa- 
sionally it  is  practicable  to  crop  soils  that  are  very 
alkaline  with  these  plants  for  several  years,  to 
remove  part  of  the  salts.  The  plants  should  not 
be  burned  on  the  land,  however;  ashes  of  all  kinds 
and  especially  these,  make  the  soil  more  alkaline. 
A  crop  of  Australian  salt  bushes  produces  15  to 
20  tons  of  excellent  green  forage  per  acre,  or  3  to  5 
tons  of  dry  forage.  This  plant  grows  well  upon 
black  alkali. 

Some  soils  that  are  very  badly  alkaline  may  not 
be  worth  the  attempt  to  reclaim;  those  that  are 
only  mildly  alkaline  it  will  certainly  pay  to  reclaim, 
providing  they  possess  the  other  requisites  of  a 
fertile  soil.  Usually  it  takes  several  years  to  com- 
pletely remove  the  objectionable  salts,  but  if  the 
soil  is  under-drained  a  fair  crop  can  be  grown  upon 
it  the  second  season.  Deep  plowing  should  be 
given  to  all  soils  that  are  more  or  less  alkaline. 
Thorough  tillage  lessens  the  evaporation  of  water 
and  hence  lessens  the  amount  of  salt  deposited  upon 
the  surface.  Hilgard  says,  "When  the  alkali  is  not 
very  abundant  nor  very  noxious,  frequent  and 
deep  tillage  may  afford  all  the  relief  needed.  More 
than  half  the  alkaline  land  in  this  state  (California) 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  69 

that  the  people  are  afraid  to  touch  requires  no  more 
remedy  than  thorough,  deep  tillage,  maintained 
at  all  times."  Liberal  dressings  of  manure,  espe- 
cially horse  manure,  are  very  beneficial. 

Alkali  soils  are  apt  to  be  deficient  in  nitrogen, 
because  the  nitrogen-fixing  germs  are  not  able  to 
do  their  work  when  there  is  much  alkali  present. 
It  is  stated  by  Snyder  that  if  a  few  loads  of  soil 
from  fertile  land  are  sprinkled  on  alkali  spots  the 
beneficial  germs  will  be  introduced  and  much  good 
will  result.  After  steps  have  been  taken  to  remove 
the  excess  of  salts  the  land  should  be  cropped  first 
with  plants  that  are  not  very  impatient  of  alkali. 
Oats  is  considered  one  of  the  best  crops  for  this 
purpose. 

Practically  all  farm  soils  contain  some  alkali, 
but  wherever  rainfall  is  plentiful  the  salts  are 
washed  away  before  they  accumulate  sufficiently 
to  injure  plants.  A  very  little  alkali  in  a  soil  is 
beneficial.  In  fact,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  lime  to 
some  acid  soils  in  order  to  make  them  sufficiently 
alkaline  to  be  most  productive,  as  is  noted  in 
Chapter  XIV 

THE    SUBSOIL 

The  soil  immediately  beneath  the  richest  part  of 
the  surface  soil  is  called  the  subsoil.  It  may  be  of 
any  depth,  and  extends  to  the  underlying  rock. 
The  distinction  between  the  soil  and  the  subsoil, 
as  the  two  names  are  commonly  used,  lies  almost 
entirely  in  the  colour  and  texture,  due  to  the 
greater  amount  of  humus  near  the  surface.  In 
cultivated  land  there  is  usually  a  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct line  between  the  rich,  black  surface  soil  and 
the  poorer  and  lighter-coloured  subsoil.  In  most 


70  SOILS 

soils,  especially  in  the  East,  this  line  marks  the 
depth  of  plowing.  The  depth  at  which  the  vege- 
tation that  gives  the  surface  soil  its  black  colour 
and  looser  texture  has  been  buried  is  about  nine 
inches.  Many  soils,  especially  those  made  by  wind 
or  built  by  water,  and  peat  and  muck  soils,  show 
very  little  if  any  difference  in  colour  or  texture  be- 
tween the  first  nine  inches  of  soil  and  that  below. 

In  nearly  all  cases  the  subsoil  contains  less 
available  plant  food  than  the  soil  above  because  it 
is  not  affected  as  much  by  weathering,  being  pro- 
tected, and  because  it  is  less  affected  by  acids  re- 
sulting from  the  decay  of  vegetation,  since  it  con- 
tains less  humus.  We  might  call  the  subsoil 
rotting  rock,  and  the  soil  rotted  subsoil.  This 
is  a  providential  arrangement.  If  the  plant  food 
in  all  the  soil,  down  to  bed-rock,  were  as  easy  to  lose 
as  that  in  the  first  nine  inches  of  soil  our  fields  would 
become  unproductive  much  sooner  than  they  do 
now.  The  subsoil  is  a  store  of  plant  Tood  that  is 
held  in  reserve.  We  should  look  upon  the  rocks, 
stones,  pebbles  and  subsoil  of  our  fields  as  so  much  po- 
tential plant  food.  It  is  being  doled  out  to  us  from 
year  to  year  as  fast  as  it  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

As  the  surface  soil  slowly  wears  away  and  is 
carried  off  in  crops,  the  subsoil  gradually  becomes 
surface  soil.  The  roots  of  deep-feeding  plants, 
as  clover  and  alfalfa,  bring  up  plant  food  that  they 
secure  below  the  roots  of  ordinary  crops.  When 
these  crops  are  cut,  and  the  stubble  and  roots 
plowed  under,  a  part  of  the  plant  food  that  the  sub- 
soil has  contributed  to  their  growth  is  returned  to 
the  surface  soil,  enriching  it.  Earthworms  bring 
to  the  surface  subsoil  that  has  never  seen  the  light 
of  day  and  this  adds  richness.  A  plowing  some- 
what deeper  than  usual  may  mix  an  inch  or  more  of 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  71 

light  subsoil  with  the  surface  soil.  This  may  re- 
duce the  crop  for  a  year  or  two,  or  until  the  raw 
plant  food  in  the  subsoil  has  been  acted  upon  by 
air,  water,  and  soil  acids,  but  eventually  the  surface 
soil  is  enriched  by  the  fresh  material. 

It  is  advantageous  for  a  sandy  soil  to  rest  upon  an 
impervious  clay  subsoil,  and  for  a  clay  soil  to  be 
underlaid  with  a  sand  or  gravel  subsoil;  both  sub- 
soils help  to  correct  the  defects  of  the  soil  above 
them.  A  deep  gravel  or  sandy  subsoil,  however, 
is  usually  a  disadvantage,  as  it  allows  plant  food  to 
leach  down  beyond  the  roots  of  plants. 

ANALYSING   THE    SOIL   AT    HOME 

The  determination  of  the  relative  proportions 
of  sand,  silt,  clay,  and  humus  in  a  soil  is  called  a 
"mechanical  analysis,"  as  compared  with  a  "chem- 
ical analysis,"  in  which  the  kinds  and  the  amounts 
of  the  different  plant  foods  are  determined.  It  is 
not  always  possible  to  have  the  soil  analysed 
by  a  chemist,  but  it  is  always  practicable  for  a 
farmer  to  determine  himself,  roughly,  the  relative 
amounts  of  the  four  ingredients  that  his  soil  con- 
tains. A  mechanical  analysis  should  point  out 
the  deficiencies  of  the  soil  much  better  than  simply 
viewing  it  on  the  surface. 

A  close  examination  of  a  handful  of  the  soil  will 
reveal  much  concerning  its  composition,  especially 
if  a  miscroscope  or  even  a  pocket  lens  is  used. 
Note  the  colour,  whether  dark  or  light ;  look  closely 
for  the  tiny  black  particles  of  humus  that  are  likely 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  dark  colour,  and  are  a  sign 
of  good  texture  and  large  water-holding  capacity. 
Rub  the  soil  gently  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger to  determine  the  size  of  the  particles.  Are 


72  SOILS 

they  mostly  coarse  or  fine?  If  the  soil  feels  dis- 
tinctly gritty  it  probably  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  sand;  if  it  feels  quite  smooth  and  makes 
a  very  smooth,  sticky  paste  when  water  is  added  to 

,  it,  it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  clay  or  silt. 

*  Take  a  handful  of  moist — not  wet — soil  and 
squeeze  it  hard.  If  the  ball  of  soil  crumbles 
quickly  and  freely  when  the  pressure  is  removed 
the  soil  contains  sufficient  humus  or  sand  and  is 
likely  to  prove  of  good  texture  and  easy  to  work. 
If,  however,  the  ball  of  moist  soil  retains  its  shape 
to  a  considerable  extent,  remaining  hard  and 
compact,  it  indicates  that  clay  and  silt  predom- 
inate and  that  the  soil  will  need  to  be  handled 
carefully. 

A  more  accurate  test  for  clay,  silt,  sand  and 
humus  may  be  made  in  the  following  manner. 
Take  a  small  sample  of  moist  soil,  as  it  is  found  in 
the  field,  say  a  quart;  screen  out  all  except  fine  par- 
ticles, and  weign  it  very  carefully.  Spread  it  thinly 
on  a  pan  and  set  it  in  a  very  moderate  oven  or  on  the 
back  of  the  stove,  where  it  will  dry  slowly,  but  not 
burn.  When  it  is  perfectly  dry  weigh  it  again. 
The  difference  shows  the  amount  of  water  that  the 
soil  contains,  all  of  which  has  been  driven  off  as 
vapour  of  water. 

jPlace  this  dry  soil  upon  a  coal-shovel  above  hot 
coals,  or  on  a  pan  placed  in  a  very  hot  oven.  The 
humus  in  it  will  begin  to  smoke.  If  the  soil  is 
kept  very  hot  for  two  or  three  hours  practically  all 
of  the  humus  will  burn,  leaving  only  the  "ash" 
or  mineral  part  of  the  soil.  A  fairly  reliable  meas- 
ure of  the  amount  of  humus  that  the  soil  contains  is 
secured  by  comparing  the  weights  before  and  after 
burning.  All  soils  that  have  a  fair  proportion  of 
humus  and  are  therefore  most  valuable  for  farming, 


KINDS  OF  SOIL  73 

should  shrink  considerably  in  bulk  and  in  weight 
by  burning. 

Separating  the  Sand,  Silt  and  Clay. — After  the 
humus  is  burned  out  of  this  soil  the  sand,  silt  and 
clay  remain.  These  being  pieces  of  rocks,  or 
mineral  matter,  they  will  not  burn  like  humus, 
which  is  vegetable  matter.  A  simple  way  to 
separate  the  three  ingredients  is  to  put  the  soil  into 
a  tall,  wide-mouthed  bottle;  one  holding  two 
quarts  will  answer,  but  a  larger  one  is  better.  Fill 
this  full  of  water  and  shake  it  violently  until  all  the 
soil  is  mixed  with  water.  Stand  it  on  the  table  and 
watch  the  soil  settle.  If  the  soil  contains  coarse 
sand  this  will  settle  almost  immediately,  being 
largest  and  heaviest.  Medium  sand  and  fine  sand 
will  settle  more  slowly.  Part  of  the  silt  and  clay 
will  remain  suspended  in  the  water  for  many  hours. 
After  several  days,  or  when  the  water  is  clear,  all 
the  soil  will  be  deposited  in  the  bottom  of  the  jar; 
the  sands  on  the  bottom,  then  silt,  and  clay  on  top. 
These  ingredients  may  not  be  deposited  in  well- 
defined  layers,  because  sand,  silt  and  clay  are  ar- 
bitrary terms,  used  to  designate  soil  grains  of  cer- 
tain abitrary  sizes,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  in 
describing  them.  In  some  cases  the  sand  may 
grade  into  the  silt  and  the  silt  into  clay  impercep- 
tibly; in  other  cases  ill-defined  layers  can  be  seen. 
In  any  case  a  close  scrutiny  of  the  way  in  which  the 
soil  settles  and  of  its  appearance  after  it  settles  will 
enable  one  to  estimate  roughly  the  proportions  of 
sand,  silt,  and  clay  that  it  contains. 

It  will  pay  a  farmer  to  test  the  different  types  of 
soil  on  his  farm  in  this  way,  and  especially  to  test 
several  different  soils  at  the  same  time  and  com- 
pare them.  The  results  of  these  simple  experi- 
ments will  bear  out  and  emphasise  field  observa- 


74  SOILS 

tions  on  the  agricultural  value  of  these  soils,  or 
they  may  indicate  a  weakness  where  none  is  sus- 
pected. It  is  well  to  take  a  dozen  or  more  samples 
of  soil  from  different  parts  of  a  field  in  which  the 
soil  is  all  approximately  similar,  to  mix  them  and  to 
take  from  the  combined  lot  the  sample  of  soil  that  is 
tested.  This  makes  it  quite  certain  that  the  re- 
sults obtained  represent  the  field  fairly. 

The  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  is  making  a  "soil  survey." 
The  types  of  soils  in  all  the  important  agricultural 
sections  of  the  country  are  being  studied.  About 
100,000  square  miles  of  land  in  different  states 
have  already  been  studied  and  reports  issued. 
These  reports  should  be  very  useful  to  the  farmers 
in  these  sections.  They  may  be  obtained  of  the 
Division  of  Publications,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SOIL   WATER 

PROBABLY  no  other  phase  of  modern  farming, 
except  the  ever  pressing  problem  of  how  to 
keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  is  now  receiving 
more  attention  than  the  problem  of  how  to  maintain 
an  adequate  supply  of  soil  water.     The  farmers  of 
our  vast  arid  regions,  both  in  the  irrigation  and  in 
the  dry-farming  sections,  pay  scarcely  more  atten- 
tion to  it  than  the  farmers  in  the  states  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  where  the  rainfall  is  supposed  to  be 
sufficient  for  ordinary  crops. 

It  is  frequently  stated  that  the  lack  of  sufficient 
water  at  the  right  time  does  more  to  reduce  the 
yields  of  farm  crops  in  the  United  States  than  the 
lack  of  available  plant  food.  This  does  not  refer 
particularly  to  the  great  droughts,  which  may 
reduce  the  corn  crop  of  the  whole  Mississippi 
valley  50  per  cent. ;  nor  even  to  the  local  droughts, 
which  sere  the  meadows  and  shrivel  the  gardens 
in  scattered  localities.  The  greatest  losses  from 
lack  of  water  are  not  from  noticeable  droughts,  but 
from  the  unnoticed  dryness  which  merely  lessens 
the  crops  year  after  year,  reducing  the  average  and 
lowering  the  standard.  There  are  a  few  restricted 
sections  of  the  country  where  the  problem  of  soil 
water  is  not  pressing;  but  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States  a  paramount  problem  in  crop 
production  is  how  to  supply  moisture  at  the  right 
time  and  in  adequate  quantity.  If  a  man  handles 
his  soil  in  such  a  way  mat  it  is  in  the  best  condition 

75 


76  SOILS 

to  receive  and  hold  a  limited  rainfall,  he  has  taken 
the  most  important  step  in  solving  the  coordinate 
problem  of  how  to  maintain  its  fertility. 

THE    AMOUNT    OF    WATER    NEEDED    BY    PLANTS 

It  takes  a  very  large  quantity  of  water  to  mature 
even  an  ordinary  crop.  Irrigation  farmers  appre- 
ciate this  much  more  than  farmers  in  humid  re- 
gions, because  they  can  see  it  in  bulk.  Hellriegel 
has  determined  the  amount  of  water  necessary  for 
the  growth  of  average  crops  of  the  following  plants : 
clover,  400  tons  per  acre;  potatoes,  400  tons; 
wheat,  350  tons;  oats,  375  tons;  corn,  300  tons; 
grapes,  375  tons.  This  does  not  take  into  account 
water  that  is  constantly  being  evaporated  from  the 
soil  in  which  the  crop  is  growing;  it  considers  only 
the  water  used  by  the  plants  themselves.  At  the 
Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  it  was  found 
that  the  loss  of  water  in  growing  a  ton  of  clover  hay, 
including  what  was  used  by  the  plants  and  what 
evaporated  from  the  soil,  was  about  1560  tons,  or 
enough  to  cover  an  acre  13.7  inches  deep.  The 
loss  of  water  in  growing  one  ton  of  air-dried  corn 
fodder  was  570  tons,  or  five  inches  per  acre;  of  one 
ton  of  oats,  1200  tons  of  water,  or  11  inches  per 
acre;  of  200  bushels  of  potatoes,  582  tons  of  water, 
or  5.6  inches  per  acre.  The  loss  of  water  in  grow- 
ing one  acre  of  pasturage  was  3223  tons,  which  is 
equivalent  to  a  rainfall  of  28  inches  per  acre.  These 
interesting  figures  emphasise  what  every  good 
farmer  already  knows:  that  an  abundant  supply 
of  water  is  even  more  essential  to  a  large  crop  than 
an  abundance  of  plant  food,  and  that  some  crops 
make  larger  demands  upon  the  soil  reservoir  than 
others. 


SOIL  WATER  77 

How  Plants  Drink. — It  is  not  easy  to  see 
how  it  can  take  from  200  to  375  pounds 
of  water  to  make  one  pound  of  dry  plants 
unless  one  knows  something  of  the  way  in 
which  plants  drink.  Only  a  small  amount 
of  this  water  becomes  a  part  of  the  structure 
of  the  plant.  Some  plants  are  very  succulent; 
94  per  cent,  of  the  strawberry  fruit  is  sweet- 
ened water,  90  per  cent,  of  the  entire  corn  plant 
is  water,  and  86  per  cent,  of  the  entire  potato 
plant  is  water. 

Even  if  the  crop  were  99  per  cent,  water 
this  would  account  for  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  amount  that  is  actually  lost  from  the 
soil  during  its  growth.  Most  of  this  enormous 
amount  of  water  is  lost  by  evaporation  through 
the  leaves.  Contrary  to  the  old  notion,  plants 
do  not  feed  by  sucking  up  tiny  particles 
of  soil.  The  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  first 
dissolved  in  soil  water,  as  salt  dissolves  in 
water;  this  is  then  drawn  up  through  the 
roots  by  a  peculiar  process  of  absorption  called 
"osmosis."  The  soil  water  drawn  up  by  the 
roots  contains  very  little  plant  food;  it  is  so 
weak  that  we  consider  it  pure  water,  and 
we  drink  it  as  it  comes  from  tile  drains  or 
wells.  Therefore  the  plant  has  to  draw  up 
a  very  large  quantity  of  water  in  order  to  get 
sufficient  food. 

After  the  plant  has  used  the  food  in  this  very 
weak  fertiliser  solution,  the  pure  water  is  exhaled 
through  the  pores  of  the  leaves.  Put  a  geranium, 
or  other  potted  plant,  under  a  glass  jar  and  note 
how  soon  the  inside  of  the  jar  becomes  clouded 
with  the  moisture  given  off  by  the  leaves.  The 
soil  in  the  pot  may  be  covered  with  oil-cloth  or 


78  SOILS 

coated  with  hot  wax  to  prevent  evaporation  from  it. 
A  plant,  then,  is  a  pump;  there  is  a  cloud  of  in- 
visible water  vapour  rising  from  every  grass  blade 
and  every  cotton  leaf.  The  value  of  some  plants 
as  pumps  compares  quite  favourably  with  the 
pumps  we  buy.  Eucalyptus  trees  are  sometimes 
used  for  draining  malarial  swamps;  willows 
planted  at  the  mouth  of  the  sink  drain  keep  the 
soil  from  getting  soggy. 

RAINFALL   INSUFFICIENT   OR   UNEVENLY 
DISTRIBUTED 

With  these  figures  on  the  actual  amount  of  water 
that  a  soil  may  lose  in  producing  certain  crops,  and 
with  this  explanation  of  where  so  much  of  it  goes, 
the  farmer  may  now  get  from  the  nearest  Weather 
Bureau  a  statement  of  the  average  amount  of  water 
that  falls  upon  his  soil  each  year  or  he  may  consult 
the  general  rainfall  map  on  another  page.  Then 
compare  the  two  sets  of  figures.  At  first  sight,  it 
may  look  as  though  there  ought  to  be  no  difficulty 
in  watering  the  crop;  the  rainfall  may  be  thirty 
inches  and  the  crop  may  use  but  thirteen.  But 
how  much  of  this  rainfall  conies  during  the  months 
when  the  crop  is  growing  ?  How  much  of  the  rain- 
fall previous  to  me  planting  of  the  crop  can  be 
saved  in  the  soil?  These  two  questions  must  be 
answered.  The  weather  man  will  answer  the 
first;  only  the  farmer  can  answer  the  second, 
for  it  depends  entirely  upon  the  kind  of 
soil  he  cultivates  and  upon  the  way  he 
handles  it. 

A  comparison  between  the  average  rainfall  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  say  from  April  1st  to  Sep- 
tember 15th,  and  the  amount  of  water  needed  by 


SOIL  WATER  79 

the  crop,  may  reveal  an  interesting  situation.  It 
may  show,  for  instance,  that  the  rainfall  in  those 
months  is  equal  to  or  greater  than  the  water  used 
in  producing  the  crop.  This  would  be  all  right 
were  it  not  for  two  facts;  quite  frequently  there 
are  years  that  fall  much  below  the  average  in  sum- 
mer rainfall,  perhaps  considerably  below  the 
amount  needed  by  the  crop;  it  is  the  average  of 
wet  years  and  dry  years  that  gives  the  "normal" 
rainfall.  Then,  again,  not  all  the  rain  that 
falls  becomes  available  for  plant  growth. 
Some  of  it  runs  off  as  surface  water  and 
fills  the  creek;  some  of  it  passes  down  through 
the  soil;  some  of  it  evaporates.  Very  often 
not  half  of  the  summer  rainfall  can  be  utilised 
by  crops. 

The  comparison  of  figures  may  show  that  the 
total  amount  of  water  that  falls  during  the  growing 
season  is  only  about  one-third  as  much  as  the  crop 
needs.  In  nearly  all  sections  of  the  country  the 
situation  is  that  not  enough  rain  falls  during  the 
growing  season  to  water  the  crops  after  that  lost 
by  surface  drainage,  evaporation  and  seepage  is 
deducted.  The  total  rainfall  may  be  adequate,  but 
it  is  unevenly  distributed.  The  problem,  then,  is 
to  store  the  abundant  rains  of  winter  and  early 
spring  against  the  dryness  of  summer;  this  is  one 
of  the  most  important  problems  in  farming.  The 
water  may  be  stored  in  reservoirs  and  used  for 
irrigation  or  it  may  be  stored  in  the  soil  itself; 
the  former  is  a  Western,  the  latter  an  Eastern 
method.  Soil  storage  is  more  common  and  re- 
quires more  skill.  The  man  who  has  learned 
to  store  water  in  the  soil  effectively  ha* 
mastered  one  of  the  most  important  problems  in 
crop  husbandry. 


80  SOILS 

CAPACITY    OF    DIFFERENT    SOILS    TO    HOLD    WATER 

The  different  forms  in  which  water  is  found  in 
the  soil  have  been  mentioned  in  Chapter 
II.  The  water  that  is  most  valuable  to 
the  plant  is  that  which  is  held  by  the 
grains  as  film  moisture,  although  a  large 
part  of  this  may  be  drawn  from  the  reser- 
voir of  free  or  standing  water  below.  Soils 
vary  widely  in  their  ability  to  hold  film 
water.  In  judging  the  value  of  a  piece  of 
land  for  cropping,  it  is  fully  as  important  to 
consider  its  water-holding  capacity  as  its  rich- 
ness in  plant  food;  a  soil  may  be  exceedingly 
rich  in  the  essential  plant  foods,  yet  if  it  does 
not  hold  enough  water  to  dissolve  that  food 
and  carry  it  to  the  plants,  it  will  produce  no 
more  than  a  very  poor  soil.  Fertility  consists  as 
much  in  an  abundance  of  soil  water  as  in  an 
abundance  of  plant  food. 

The  capacity  of  a  soil  to  hold  water  depends 
upon  its  composition  and  upon  its  texture. 
The  lighter  a  soil  is,  or  the  more  sand  it 
contains,  the  less  water  it  will  hold.  The 
smaller  the  grains,  the  more  water  the  soil 
holds,  since  there  is  more  surface  for  it  to 
cling  to  and  less  likelihood  that  it  will  leach 
through.  Each  soil  grain  is  surrounded  by  a 
film  of  moisture  ;  if  there  are  over  168,000,- 
000,000  grains  in  an  ounce  of  soil,  as  in  some 
alluvial  soils,  the  amount  of  surface  for  the 
water  to  cling  to  is  much  greater  than  if  there  are 
but  56,000,000,000  grains  in  an  ounce,  as  in  some 
truck  soils.  The  more  humus  a  soil  contains  the 
greater  is  its  water-holding  capacity,  for  humus  is 
vegetable  sponge.  If  small  quantities  of  several 


SOIL  WATER  81 

kinds  of  soil  are  completely  dried  in  an  oven, 
and  water  is  then  aclded  to  them,  it  will  be 
found  that  they  will  hold  about  the  following 
amounts : 

Sharp  sand   25% 

Clay  soil  (60%  clay)     40% 

Heavy  clay  (80%  clay)     81% 

Loam 51% 

Garden  mould 89% 

Humus 181% 

The  same  soils  do  not  hold  as  much  water  as 
this  in  the  field,  because  a  large  part  of  it  drains 
off,  as  it  must  in  order  to  make  the  soil  congenial 
for  plants.  It  is  far  more  important  to  know  how 
much  water  a  soil  will  hold  under  its  natural  con- 
ditions in  the  field,  after  the  excess  water  that  fills 
the  spaces  has  drained  away  and  only  film  moisture 
remains.  The  amount  of  film  water  held  by  dif- 
ferent soils  is  about  as  follows:  A  coarse  sand 
holds  but  12  to  15  per  cent,  by  weight  of  film 
moisture;  a  sandy  loam  from  20  to  30  per  cent.; 
a  clay  loam  from  30  to  40  per  cent. ;  a  heavy  clay, 
or  a  soil  very  rich  in  humus,  may  hold  40  to  50  per 
cent,  of  film  moisture.  This  means  that  a  mellow 
loam  with  a  retentive  subsoil  holds  four  to  five 
inches  of  water  in  the  first  foot  of  soil. 

Although  a  sandy  soil  holds  less  water  than  a 
clayey  soil  this  disadvantage  is  partially  offset 
by  the  fact  that  the  lighter  soils  give  up  to  the 
plants  a  larger  percentage  of  the  water  they  do 
contain  than  the  heavier  and  wetter  soils.  A 
light  soil  may  hold  30  per  cent,  of  water  and  a  heavy 
soil  55  per  cent.,  yet  the  lighter  soil  may  give  nearly 
three-fourths  of  its  water  to  the  crop  while  the 
plants  could  secure  scarcely  one-half  of  the  water 
held  by  the  heavy  soil. 


82  SOILS 

Influence  of  Subsoil  on  the  Water-holding  Ca- 
pacity of  Soils. — The  amount  of  water  held  by  a 
soil  depends  not  only  upon  the  character  of  the 
upper  two  or  three  feet  of  surface  soil,  in  which  the 
roots  of  most  farm  plants  chiefly  feed,  but  also  upon 
the  character  of  the  subsoil  and  upon  the  distance 
to  the  water  table.  Some  subsoils  are  retentive, 
others  are  leachy.  A  layer  of  gravel  or  sand  three 
or  four  feet  below  the  surface  may  provide  perfect 
natural  drainage,  thereby  increasing  the  amount  of 
film  water  that  the  upper  soil  can  hold.  A  hard- 
pan  of  impervious  clay,  or  of  rock  close  to  the  sur- 
lace,  will  greatly  reduce  the  water-holding  capacity 
of  the  soil,  strange  as  it  may  seem.  One  might 
think  that  if  the  water  could  pass  down  only  three 
or  four  feet  before  it  strikes  hardpan,  the  soil 
above  would  be  wetter  than  if  the  water  could  pass 
down  through  many  feet  of  soil.  But  the  fact  is 
that  the  shallow  soils  are  dryest;  because,  in  times 
of  abundant  rains,  the  water  soon  fills  the  soil,  and 
then  flows  off  as  surface  drainage;  whereas  it 
sinks  down  into  the  deep  soil  for  many  feet  and  is 
stored  there  for  the  future  use  of  the  crop.  The 
first  five  feet  of  a  strong  loam  may  contain  enough 
water  to  make  a  layer  ten  to  twenty  inches  deep 
over  the  field. 

Height  of  Water  Table. — The  distance  below  the 
surface  at  which  free  water  is  found  has  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  amount  of  film  water  held 
by  the  soil  above  it.  Generally  speaking  the  nearer 
the  water  table  is  to  the  area  in  which  the  roots  of 
cultivated  plants  forage,  the  larger  will  be  the 
amount  of  film  water  held  by  this  soil;  for  a  large 
part  of  this  film  water  is  drawn  directly  from  the 
iree  water,  and  the  nearer  this  is,  the  more  abun- 
dant and  equable  will  be  the  supply.  The  roots 


SOIL  WATER  83 

of  most  cultivated  crops  rarely  go  more  than  five 
feet  deep,  hence  a  soil  in  which  the  water  table  is 
from  four  to  six  feet  below  the  surface  is  apt  to  be 
most  abundantly  supplied  with  film  water.  When 
wet  land  is  tile  drained,  the  level  of  the  water  table 
is  reduced  from  four  to  six  feet  deep,  depending 
upon  the  depth  at  which  the  drains  are  laid  below 
tne  surface.  The  chief  reason  why  wet  lands  are 
so  valuable  after  being  under-drained  is  that  the 
water  table  is  lowered  only  to  the  point  where  it  can 
most  easily  supply  the  soil  above  with  film  moisture ; 
while  in  lands  that  need  no  under-drainage  the 
water  table  may  be  thirty  feet  deep  instead  of  six. 

HOW  TO  INCREASE  THE  WATER-HOLDING    CAPACITY 

OF    SOILS 

Fortunately  for  the  farmer  he  can  do  much  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  film  water  that  some  soils  can 
hold,  and  thereby  increase  their  productiveness.  The 
farmer  who  irrigates  should  be  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject as  much  as  the  farmer  who  depends  upon  natural 
rainfall  to  supply  his  crops  with  water;  it  is  tedious 
and  expensive  to  irrigate  frequently,  and  he  should 
know  how  to  increase  the  capacity  of  his  soil  to  hold 
water  so  that  fewer  irrigations  will  be  needed. 

Under-drainage  is  the  most  efficient  means  of  im- 
proving a  soil  in  which  the  water  table  is  always  so 
close  to  the  surface  that  the  soil  is  too  wet  for  farm 
crops;  or  which  is  very  wet  in  winter  and  very  dry 
in  summer.  Deep  plowing,  harrowing,  cultivating 
and  other  tillage  operations  also  do  much  to  deepen 
the  soil  and  enlarge  the  reservoir,  because  the  more 
a  soil  is  pulverised  the  more  water  it  will  hold. 
The  addition  of  humus  to  a  soil  in  the  form  of  farm 
manure,  muck  or  a  green  manure,  has  a  very 


84  SOILS 

marked  influence  on  its  ability  to  hold  water.  Fur- 
thermore, if  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  softened,  rains 
sink  into  it  better.  Fall  plowing  will  leave  the  soil 
loose  so  that  it  will  absorb  the  winter  rains:  if 
the  surface  is  hard  and  compact,  much  of  the  water 
runs  off.  All  of  these  operations  are  so  funda- 
mental to  successful  farming  that  each  one  is  dis- 
cussed at  length  in  subsequent  chapters. 

Influence  of  Forests  on  Water  Supply. — The 
influence  of  forests  upon  the  water  supply  should 
not  be  overlooked.  When  forests  near  streams 
are  removed,  the  soil  of  the  adjoining  farm  land  is 
made  dryer,  and  there  is  increased  danger  of  floods. 
The  large  body  of  humus  beneath  forest  trees  holds 
an  immense  amount  of  water,  like  a  sponge — nearly 
twice  as  much  as  its  own  weight  when  dry.  In 
times  of  drought,  this  water  is  given  off  gradually  to 
adjoining  dryer  land.  Moreover,  the  air  near  large 
forests  contains  more  moisture  than  the  air  of 
cleared  areas  because  the  trees  give  off  large 
quantities  of  water  through  their  leaves:  hence 
farm  soils  in  deforested  areas  lose  water  more 
rapidly,  because  the  air  above  them  is  dryer.  There 
are  thousands  of  acres  of  land  in  this  country  which 
have  been  cleared  of  timber  to  use  for  farming, 
but  which  are  nearly  valueless  for  that  purpose 
and  should  revert  to  forest;  to  say  nothing  of  the 
wholesale  destruction  of  forests  for  timber  alone. 
Policy,  as  well  as  sentiment,  should  induce  every 
man  to  |leave  as  much  of  his  farm  in  woodland 
as  is  practicable. 

LOSS   OF   WATER   BY   SEEPAGE 

The  free  water  of  all  soils  is  continually  passing 
downward  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  gravitation. 


SOIL  WATER  85 

Near  the  surface  it  seeps  down  slowly,  but  as  it 
goes  deeper  it  gathers  volume  and  power.  If  the 
soil  is  shallow,  it  soon  strikes  hardpan  and  over- 
flows as  surface  drainage.  If  the  soil  is  deep,  it 
may  sink  down  many  hundreds  of  feet  until  it 
comes  to  some  kind  of  a  check  or  channel;  per- 
haps a  stratum  of  rock,  perhaps  a  layer  of  coarse 
gravel.  Down  this  it  passes,  joining  forces  with 
other  underground  currents,  as  the  rill  joins  the 
brook  and  the  brook  joins  the  creek.  This  channel 
may  lead  it  many  miles  away  to  where  the  stratum  of 
rock  or  gravel  comes  to  the  surface.  Then  it 
gushes  forth  as  a  spring  near  the  base  of  some  hill, 
or  on  the  bottom  of  some  lake.  Or  it  may  not  come 
to  the  surface  but  seek  a  lower  level  and  there 
seep  upward  through  the  soil  because  of  the  pres- 
sure of  other  water  behind  it.  Just  as  surface  water 
flows  down  hillsides  and  collects  in  valleys,  so 
underground  water  may  sink  through  the  soil  of  the 
mountain,  hill,  knoll  or  ridge,  until  it  reaches  the 
levels,  where  it  may  be  pushed  up  towards  the 
surface  again  by  the  pressure  of  water  behind 
it.  Many  thousands  of  acres  of  farm  lands  are 
thus  sub-irrigated,  or  watered  from  below,  by 
water  that  has  seeped  down  from  higher  land, 
perhaps  many  miles  away.  When  drained,  these 
soils  become  very  productive,  not  only  because 
of  the  equable  supply  of  water  that  they 
receive  from  below,  but  also  because  this 
water,  having  perhaps  travelled  a  long  dis- 
tance in  seeking  its  level,  has  dissolved  much 
plant  food  from  the  soil  through  which  it  has 
passed. 

Loss  of  Plant  Food  in  Seepage  Water. — This 
latter  phase  of  the  seepage  of  soil  water  has  a  very 
important  bearing  upon  the  fertility  of  the  land. 


86  SOILS 

The  water  in  the  soil,  both  free  and  film,  is  not  pure 
but  has  in  it  various  salts  and  elements  that  it  has 
dissolved  from  the  soil.  Some  of  these  are  plant 
foods.  The  nitrates,  containing  that  most  ex- 
pensive of  plant  foods,  nitrogen,  are  most  likely  to 
be  carried  off  in  this  way;  also  the  phosphates  and 
the  potash  salts  to  some  extent.  Most  any  kind 
of  farm  plant  will  grow  very  well  in  the  water 
caught  from  a  drain  tile,  and  nothing  else,  showing 
that  this  water  contains  as  much  plant  food  as 
that  which  the  plants  in  the  soil  draw  up  through 
their  roots. 

The  coarser  a  soil  is,  and  the  less  humus  it  con- 
tains, the  less  able  is  it  to  retain  the  rain  that  falls 
upon  it.  It  takes  longer  for  water  to  seep  down 
through  clay  soils,  in  which  the  spaces  between 
the  particles  are  very  small,  than  through  a  sandy 
soil,  in  which  the  spaces  between  the  grains  are 
much  larger.  This  is  why  sandy  soils  are  leachy. 
The  loss  of  water  from  clayey  soils,  through  seep- 
age, is  much  facilitated  by  the  burrows  of  eartn- 
worms  and  the  decay  of  roots,  both  of  which  open 
channels;  also,  to  a  considerable  extent,  by  the 
numerous  cracks  that  appear  in  all  clay  soils  as 
they  dry.  These  cracks  are  often  very  large  on 
the  surface;  smaller  though  less  numerous  cracks 
are  found  for  several  feet  below. 

With  the  exception  of  very  sandy  soils,  the  loss 
of  water  by  seepage  is  not  likely  to  occur  during  the 
growing  season.  In  most  parts  of  the  country  the 
upper  soil  becomes  so  dry  during  the  summer  that 
tne  summer  rainfall  is  mostly  taken  up  or  evapo- 
rated before  it  is  lost  by  seepage.  It  is  during  the 
season  when  vegetation  is  dormant  or  inactive, 
which  is  usually  when  the  precipitation  is  largest, 
that  the  loss  of  water  by  seepage,  and  the  loss  of 


SOIL  WATER  87 

the  plant  food  dissolved  in  this  water,  is  likely  to 
be  largest. 

The  loss  of  soil  water  by  seepage  can  be  prevented, 
in  part,  by  judicious  farm  practice.  If  a  leachy 
soil  is  filled  with  humus,  either  from  manure  or 
from  decaying  vegetation,  the  large  spaces  between 
the  grains  are  clogged  and  water  sinks  through  the 
soil  less  rapidly.  An  open,  porous  soil  may  also 
be  compacted  by  rolling,  which  reduces  the  size 
of  the  spaces  by  crushing  the  grains  together. 
Liming  a  sandy  soil  may  have  a  slight  effect  in  the 
same  direction.  If  the  soil  is  not  left  bare  during 
the  winter  when  a  crop  is  not  growing  upon  it,  but  is 
kept  covered  with  a  catch  crop,  as  rye,  the  roots  and 
herbage  of  this  crop  hold  much  of  the  water  that 
otherwise  would  be  lost.  These  operations  are 
discussed  at  length  in  succeeding  chapters. 

THE   MOVEMENT   OF   FILM   WATER 

In  Chapter  II  it  was  stated  that  by  far  the  most 
important  kind  of  water  in  the  soil  is  that  which 
surrounds  the  soil  grains  like  a  film;  because  it  is 
this,  not  free  water,  which  the  roots  of  plants  use. 
This  water  is  held  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  grains  by 
tension  or  adhesion,  as  a  film  of  water  adheres  to 
a  pebble  dipped  into  the  brook.  There  is  also 
more  or  less  water  in  the  spaces  between  the  grains. 
These  films  of  water  are  not  all  of  the  same  thick- 
ness. Some  grains  have  more  water  on  them  than 
others;  therefore  parts  of  the  soil  are  dryer  than 
others.  The  dryness  of  some  parts  of  the  soil  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  received  less  water 
from  rainfall.  It  may  also  be  caused  by  the  roots 
of  thirsty  plants. 

The  movement  of  film  water  takes  place  in  this 


88  SOILS 

way :  The  minute  root  hairs  are  always  absorbing 
water,  together  with  the  plant  food  that  is  dissolved 
in  it;  not  free  water,  but  the  film  water  clinging  to 
the  grains  of  soil.  The  soil  grains  which  thus  pay 
tribute  to  the  plants  become  dry.  But  they  touch 
grains  that  are  not  in  direct  contact  with  the  plant 
pump;  part  of  the  film  moisture  clinging  to  these 
is  passed  along  to  the  dry  grains,  so  tnat  both  be- 
come equally  moist.  Now  the  grains  a  little  further 
off  have  more  moisture  than  these  which  have  given 
a  part  of  theirs  to  the  dry  grains  in  the  grasp  of  the 
root  hairs.  These,  likewise,  give  of  their  abun- 
dance to  the  soil  grains  less  favoured.  So  it  comes 
about  that  there  is  always  a  steady  current  of  film 
water  passing  to  every  root  hair  of  every  thirsty, 
growing  plant;  not  flowing  through  the  soil,  but 
creeping  from  particle  to  particle,  and  space  to 
space. 

In  exactly  the  same  way  there  is  always  a  cur- 
rent of  film  water  passing  upward  on  every 
summer  day  to  replace  the  water  that  the  upper- 
most soil  grains  have  lost  by  evaporation.  The 
amount  of  water  lost  from  common  farm  soils 
by  evaporation  may  be  as  much  as  five  inches  a 
month  during  the  summer.  There  must  be  in- 
equalities in  the  dryness  of  the  soil  that  are  due 
to  other  causes,  as  difference  in  texture  or  com- 
position; but  for  the  most  part  we  may  think  of 
this  great  volume  of  film  water,  equal  to  a  layer 
of  water  over  fifteen  inches  deep  in  the  first  five 
feet  of  some  soils,  as  settling  strongly  in  two  currents 
—toward  the  surface,  to  replace  the  loss  of  water 
by  evaporation,  and  toward  the  roots  of  plants. 
These  invisible  currents  are  not  affected  by  the 
law  of  gravitation;  they  travel  up,  down,  or  sidewise 
in  the  endeavour  to  make  the  soil  equally  moist 


SOIL  WATER  89 

throughout  its  bulk.  But  this  result  is  never 
brought  to  pass;  it  is  prevented  by  the  frequent 
downward  passage  of  water,  constant  evaporation 
from  the  surface  and  continued  absorption  by 
roots. 

We  are  not  concerned  about  checking  the  current 
of  film  moisture  toward  the  roots,  except  to  in- 
crease it.  Usually  the  larger  the  loss  of  film  water 
in  this  way,  the  greater  the  gain  to  the  farmer. 
But  we  are  greatly  concerned  about  the  current 
of  film  water  that  is  passing  upward  to  the  surface 
of  the  soil  and  is  then  lost  in  the  air  as  water  vapour. 
We  cannot  afford  to  lose  this  water;  and  we  can- 
not afford  to  lose,  even  temporarily,  the  plant  food 
that  is  dissolved  in  it.  When  the  water  evaporates, 
this  is  left  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil  where  it  is 
useless  to  plants,  until  washed  down  into  the  root- 
feeding  area.  We  would  rather  have  the  water 
evaporate,  not  from  the  soil,  but  through  the  leaves 
of  crops,  after  it  has  given  to  the  plants  the  food 
that  it  contains. 

The  sun  is  the  mightiest  of  pumps.  The 
amount  of  water  that  is  evaporated  from  the  soil  in 
one  summer  day  is  astonishing  even  to  those  who 
have  observed  how  quickly  the  soil  becomes  dry 
in  midsummer  after  a  heavy  rain.  King  found 
that  each  square  foot  of  an  ordinary  farm  soil 
lost  1.3  pounds  of  water  daily  by  evaporation 
from  the  surface. 

Capillary  Action. — The  movement  of  film  water 
in  the  soil  is  frequently  called  "capillary  action." 
The  soil  being  made  of  millions  of  tiny  grains, 
there  are  likewise  millions  of  tiny  spaces  between 
the  grains,  as  in  a  pile  of  wheat;  so  it  follows  that 
there  is  a  more  or  less  continuous  passage  from  one 
space  to  another,  making  many  small  and  very 


90  SOILS 

crooked  tubes — hence  the  term  "capillary,"  hair- 
like.  Film  water  passes  up,  down  and  sidewise 
through  these  tubes,  but  mostly  upward,  for  there 
is  where  the  soil  is  most  likely  to  become  dry.  For 
the  purpose  of  illustration,  then,  we  may  conceive 
that  every  farm  soil  is  permeated  with  very  fine 
hair-like  tubes  which  reach  deep  into  the  subsoil; 
that  it  is,  we  will  say,  something  like  a  bundle  of 
wheat  straw.  The  lower  ends  of  the  tubes  rest 
upon  the  water  table — which  may  be  two,  six  or 
thirty  feet  below  the  surface,  according  to  the  depth 
at  which  free  water  is  found.  The  upper  ends  of 
the  tubes  open  upon  the  surface.  Water  is  drawn 
up  through  these  tubes,  from  the  water  table  to  the 
surface,  by  a  kind  of  suction  called  "capillary  ac- 
tion." Capillary  action  is  something  like  the  pro- 
cess by  which  oil  is  drawn  up  through  a  wick;  the 
flame  that  burns  the  oil  is  like  the  sun  that 
evaporates  the  water;  as  oil  creeps  up  through  the 
strands  of  the  wick,  so  soil  water  creeps  up  through 
tiny  pores  of  the  soil.  Whenever  the  sun  is  hot,  or 
a  drying  wind  hugs  the  ground,  water  is  drawn  up 
through  these  tubes.  In  reality  the  tubes  are  as 
crooked  and  irregular  as  the  holes  in  a  piece  of 
cheese,  yet  the  principle  and  the  results  are  the 
same. 

How  to  Prevent  the  Loss  of  Film  Water. — How 
can  this  great  loss  of  water — sometimes  amounting 
to  over  one  and  one-half  inches  of  rain  in  a  single 
week — be  checked  ?  Obviously  there  is  but  one 
way  to  do  it — by  stopping  the  mouths  of  the  tubes. 
One  need  not  travel  far  to  find  illustrations  of  how 
this  may  be  done.  Turn  over  a  board  or  stone 
lying  on  the  ground;  the  soil  beneath  is  more 
moist  than  the  adjacent  soil;  the  pores  of  the 
earth  have  been  closed,  and  the  current  of  water 


SOIL  WATER  91 

passing  upward  has  been  stopped.  That  is  why 
fishermen  hunt  for  earthworms  beneath  stones, 
when  the  weather  is  very  dry.  A  layer  of  small 
flat  rocks  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  ground 
would  prevent  a  large  part  of  the  film  water  from 
escaping,  were  it  practicable.  The  woodpile 
offers  another  illustration,  for  the  soil  is  always 
moist  beneath  the  layer  of  chips,  showing  that  evap- 
oration has  been  checked.  But  a  layer  of  straw 
does  just  as  well  and  is  easier  to  apply. 

Any  material  that  is  spread  upon  the  soil  to  stop 
up  the  mouths  of  the  water  tubes  and  shade  the 
surface  from  the  sun,  thus  preventing  the  loss  of 
soil  water,  is  called  a  mulch.  The  most  effective 
and  practicable  mulches  are  coarse  hay,  straw,  and 
farm  manures ;  not  only  because  they  are  easy  to 
apply,  but  also  because  they  benefit  the  soil  in  other 
ways,  chiefly  through  the  humus  that  they  add. 
Occasionally  other  materials  are  used  to  mulch  the 
soil,  as  leaves,  straw  waste,  coal  ashes,  sea-weed. 
Mulching  to  save  soil  water  is  rarely  practised  in 
growing  common  farm  crops.  Small  fruits,  espe- 
cially the  strawberry,  currant  and  gooseberry  and 
also,  to  a  slight  extent,  the  tree  fruits,  are  frequently 
mulched  with  these  materials. 

The  Soil  Mulch. — The  most  practicable  mulch 
in  general  farming  is  made  of  loose,  dry  soil.  This 
is  obtained  by  stirring  the  surface  of  the  soil  with 
the  implements  of  tillage,  as  the  plow,  harrow  and 
cultivator.  Stirring  the  soil  makes  it  much  looser. 
The  pores  are  broken.  Water  can  creep  from  one 
soil  grain  to  another  only  when  the  grains  are  close 
together — when  the  soil  is  compact.  Stirring  the 
soil  spreads  the  grains  so  far  apart  that  water  can- 
not pass  from  one  grain  to  another,  or  but  very 
slowly.  So  it  comes  no  further  than  the  mouths 


92  SOILS 

of  the  tubes,  which  are  now  not  on  the  surface  but 
eight  inches,  six  inches  or  three  inches  below  the 
surface,  according  to  the  depth  to  which  the  soil 
has  been  loosened.  The  practical  application  of 
this  fact,  and  other  benefits  of  tillage,  are  fully 
described  in  Chapter  V. 

THE  WATER-MOVING  ABILITY  OF    DIFFERENT    SOILS 

Since  soils  are  so  variable  in  composition  and  in 
texture  they  naturally  vary  a  great  deal  in  their 
"capillarity,"  or  their  ability  to  move  film  water. 
This  point  is  worth  considering  when  selecting  a 
farm;  a  soil  through  which  water  moves  slowly  is 
not  apt  to  be  very  productive.  The  coarser  a  soil 
is,  the  less  water  it  can  draw  up.  Fill  one  lamp 
chimney  with  coarse  sand  and  another  with  clay 
loam,  both  packed  hard.  Set  both  of  them 
in  a  pan  of  water  and  note  the  difference  in 
the  amount  of  water  that  they  draw  up  and  the 
time  it  takes  them  to  do  it.  For  a  while  water  will 
rise  rapidly  through  sand,  but  it  will  not  be  drawn 
very  high,  because  the  spaces  or  tubes  are  so  large. 
In  the  finer  soils,  especially  those  containing  some 
clay,  water  rises  more  slowly,  but  it  is  drawn  up 
very  much  farther.  Humus  increases  the  water- 
drawing  power  of  a  soil. 

The  importance  of  securing  a  soil  with  high 
capillary  power  lies  in  the  relation  this  has  to  the 
water  supply  of  crops.  Film  water,  on  which 
plants  feed,  is  drawn  largely  from  the  reservoir 
of  free  water  below.  It  is  important  that  a  soil  be 
able  to  draw  water  freely  and  rapidly  in  order  to 
keep  the  roots  constantly  bathed  in  the  life  giving 
fluid.  A  large  crop  makes  a  tremendous  drain 
upon  the  water  in  the  upper  part  of  the  soil  during 


SOIL  WATER  93 

a  single  day.  If  the  sun  is  very  hot,  the  amount  of 
water  lost  by  evaporation  is  large;  even  thorough 
tillage  cannot  entirely  prevent  the  escape  of  water. 
This  means  that  the  supply  of  film  water  in  the 
surface  soil  must  be  quietly  replenished  from  be- 
low, else  the  plants  will  suffer. 

In  some  soils  the  water  table  is  many  feet 
below  the  soil  in  which  the  roots  of  plants 
feed;  in  such  cases  there  is  especial  need 
that  the  water  be  able  to  move  rapidly  through 
the  soil.  Very  sandy  soils  not  only  do  not  hold 
much  water,  but  also  have  little  power  to  transport 
it  by  capillary  action.  Very  stiff  clay  soils,  on  the 
other  hand,  while  they  hold  a  large  amount  of 
water,  regain  water  very  slowly  after  having  be- 
come dry,  so  that  they  frequently  suffer  much  in  a 
drought.  When  a  clay  soil  dries  it  shrinks,  and 
cracks  appear  not  merely  on  the  surface,  but  also  to 
a  depth  of  several  feet.  These  cracks  let  in  air 
which  still  further  dries  the  soil ;  the  roots  of  plants 
may  also  be  torn  apart  and  exposed,  All  kinds 
of  loams  have  excellent  water-carrying  power; 
this  fact,  together  with  their  mellowness  and  fer- 
tility, makes  them  among  the  most  valuable  of 
farm  soils. 

How  to  Test  the  Water-holding  Capacity  of 
Farm  Soils. — The  points  that  have  been  brought 
out  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  will  be  made 
more  concrete  to  the  reader  if  he  will  try  a  few 
simple  experiments.  Get  a  quart  each  of  stiff  clay, 
sana,  and  the  black,  spongy  humus  beneath 
forest  trees.  Put  the  three  samples  into  a  slow 
oven  and  dry  them  for  two  or  three  hours,  or  until 
they  appear  perfectly  dry.  Stand  three  lamp 
chimneys  in  pans  and  fill  one  with  the  dry  humus, 
one  with  the  dry  sand  and  one  with  the  dry  clay. 


94  SOILS 

Pack  each  very  tightly.  Fill  three  quart  jars  with 
water  and  pour  water  slowly  from  one  of  them  into 
the  top  of  the  chimney  of  humus;  water  the  chim- 
neys of  sand  and  clay  likewise  from  the  other  two 
jars.  Pour  in  only  a  very  little  water  at  a  time  so 
as  to  allow  it  to  settle  slowly  and  wet  all  the  soil 
thoroughly.  Stop  pouring  water  when  the  soil  is 
wet  to  the  bottom,  and  water  begins  to  seep  from 
the  bottom  of  the  chimney.  Note  first,  how 
quickly  water  passes  through  sand  and  how  little 
water  it  holds — it  is  leacny.  Observe  that  the 
humus  also  absorbs  the  water  quite  readily,  but 
holds  much  more  of  it.  The  clay  takes  up  the 
water  very  slowly  but  holds  a  large  quantity  of  it. 
The  water  left  in  each  of  the  three  jars  shows  the 
relative  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soils. 

The  chimneys  of  soil  represent  actual  conditions 
in  the  field ;  the  water  held  by  the  soil  in  the  chim- 
neys is  film  or  capillary  water,  while  the  water  that 
seeps  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  chimney  is  free  or 
standing  water.  The  same  results  may  be  secured 
in  another  way  by  filling  several  flower  pots 
with  different  soils  and  drying  them  in  an  oven. 
After  weighing  each  pot  of  soil  separately,  add 
water  to  it  very  slowly  until  it  seeps  out  at  the 
bottom.  Set  the  pots  away  to  dram.  When  no 
more  water  seeps  out,  weigh  them  again.  The 
difference  in  weight  is  the  amount  of  film  water 
that  the  soil  can  nold. 

The  several  types  of  soil  on  the  farm  may  now 
be  tested  in  the  same  way.  Compare  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  a  sandy  loam  with  a  clay 
loam.  If  you  have  a  stiff  clay  soil,  fill  one  chimney 
with  this,  another  with  a  sample  of  the  same  soil 
which  has  had  some  humus  mixed  with  it,  and  a 
third  chimney  with  another  sample  of  the  same 


SOIL  WATER  95 

soil  which  has  had  some  sand  mixed  with  it.  A 
comparison  of  these  three  samples  should  point 
a  profitable  lesson.  If  you  have  a  very  sandy  soil 
find  the  influence  of  adding  humus  to  it  in  like 
manner.  If  accurate  measurements  are  desired, 
weigh  the  dry  soil  and  the  same  soil  after  it  is 
thoroughly  saturated.  A  good  soil  should  be  able 
to  absorb  at  least  one-half  its  own  weight  of  water; 
humus  often  holds  almost  twice  its  own  weight  of 
water,  and  sand  from  15  to  25  per  cent. 

Testing  the  Water-moving  Ability  of  Soils. — The 
ability  of  a  soil  to  move  water  by  capillary  action, 
and  to  draw  upon  the  free  water  to  supply  the 
needs  of  plants,  may  be  determined  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy  in  the  following  manner.  Take 
chimneys  of  fire-dried  and  well-packed  clay,  sand 
and  humus,  as  in  the  previous  test,  and  stand 
them  in  a  pan.  Cover  the  bottom  of  the 
pan  with  half  an  inch  of  water.  Note  the  water 
creep  up  into  the  chimney  by  capillary  attraction. 
It  rises  very  rapidly  in  the  sand  at  first,  but  is  carried 
only  three  or  four  inches  high  and  then  stops — 
the  spaces  between  the  grains  are  too  large  for  it  to 
be  drawn  higher.  Humus  takes  the  water  up  more 
slowly  but  eventually  the  soil  at  the  top  of  the 
chimney  is  wet  with  the  film  water  drawn  up  from 
below.  The  clay  absorbs  water  even  more  slowly 
than  humus,  but  the  surface  soil  of  the  chimney  of 
clay  is  wet  in  a  few  hours.  Now  test  in  a  similar 
manner  the  farm  soils  which  you  have  to  handle. 
See  what  effect  mixing  a  little  sand  or  humus  with 
the  clay  has  upon  its  water-drawing  power,  and 
what  influence  mixing  a  little  humus  with  the 
sand  has  upon  its  capillary  power.  Compare 
the  capillary  power  of  sand  when  it  is  put  into 
the  chimney  loosely,  and  when  it  is  packed 


96  SOILS 

into  the  chimney  very  firmly;    it  may  suggest  the 
value  of  rolling. 

The  chimney  of  soil  is  a  field  in  miniature;  all 
fertile  soils  draw  up  water  from  the  water  table  by 
capillary  action,  as  these  samples  of  soil  draw  up 
water  from  the  pan.  One  of  the  most  important 
functions  of  the  soil  is  here  exemplified.  Some- 
times simple  experiments  like  these  show  in  tang- 
ible, concrete  form,  the  results  that  may  be  expected 
from  a  farm  practice  that  must  be  extended  over  a 
number  of  years  in  order  to  achieve  these  same 
results  in  the  field. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   BENEFITS   OF  TILLAGE 

TILLAGE — stirring  the  soil — is  the  simplest 
and  commonest  operation  on  the  farm.  Pos- 
sibly this  is  why  it  is  understood  the  least. 
There  are  a  hundred  farmers  who  can  explain  per- 
fectly the  theory  of  a  balanced  ration  to  a  dozen  who 
know  all  the  benefits  of  the  ordinary  soil-stirring 
that  occupies  their  time  more  than  any  other 
farm  practice.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that 
there  are  two  perfectly  obvious  benefits  of  tillage 
—the  ground  must  first  be  stirred  to  make  a  mellow 
seed  bed,  and  it  must  be  stirred  to  kill  the  weeds 
that  dispute  with  the  crops  for  possession  of  the 
land.  The  necessity  for  stirring  the  soil  to  ac- 
complish these  ends  is  so  apparent  that  many  have 
looked  no  further  for  the  benefits  of  tillage  than 
those  that  appear  on  the  surface. 

The  Present  Emphasis  on  Good  Tillage. — During 
the  past  twenty-five  years  there  has  been  a  marked 
change  in  the  attitude  of  farmers  toward  tillage. 
Probably  no  other  farm  operation  has  advanced 
farther  in  the  quarter  century,  not  only  in  a  better 
understanding  of  its  purpose,  but  also  in  the  effi- 
ciency with  which  it  is  performed.  During  the  last 
quarter  of  the  ninteenth  century  emphasis  was 
placed  most  emphatically  on  tillage — "good  tillage," 
"thorough  tillage,"  "better  tillage,"  and  similar 
captions  were  the  subjects  for  more  articles  in 
farm  papers  and  more  talks  at  farmers'  institutes 
than  any  other  operation  of  farming.  The  results 

97 


98  SOILS 

of  this  campaign,  or  "tillage  era,"  as  It  lias 
been  called,  are  seen  everywhere  in  better  crops 
and  more  fertile  fields.  Just  now  we  seem  to  be 
passing  through  a  "humus  era"  in  our  agricultural 
development.  The  benefits  of  green  manuring 
and  cover  crops  are  being  heralded  far  and  wide — 
perhaps  over-emphasised  a  bit — as  the  benefits  of 
tillage  may  have  been  overstated;  for  humus,  as 
well  as  tillage,  is  only  one  of  many  factors  that  enter 
into  the  profitable  production  of  crops.  It  is  well, 
however,  that  each  of  the  important  points  in 
good  farming  is  before  us  so  prominently  for  a 
time;  it  brings  them  to  the  attention  of  men  who 
would  not  consider  them  so  carefully  were  they  not 
stated  so  emphatically  and  discussed  so  exclusively. 

TILLAGE   TO    PREPARE    THE    SEED    BED 

The  primary  object  of  stirring  the  soil  is  to  pre- 
pare it  to  receive  the  crop  and  to  eliminate  com- 
petition with  other  plants.  In  the  wild,  seeds  are 
sown  on  untilled  land  and  very  few  find  a  congenial 
seed  bed  and  grow  into  lusty  specimens  of  their 
kind.  They  may  find  the  soil  upon  which  they 
fall  hard,  cold  and  unresponsive,  or  already  pre- 
empted by  other  plants  of  the  same  or  other  kinds. 
Even  if  the  seeds  germinate  they  at  once  engage 
in  a  life  struggle  with  their  neighbours  for  food, 
water,  sunshine,  a  struggle  that  is  relentless  and 
inexorable.  A  very  few  plants,  favoured  by  some 
accident  in  position,  get  a  start  over  the  others  and 
slowlv  choke  them  to  death,  or  keep  them  in  wan 
and  feeble  subjection.  Nature  is  satisfied,  appar- 
ently, with  small  returns  for  her  prodigal  seed  sow- 
ing; if  one  seed  in  a  thousand  brings  forth  fruit  unto 
the  harvest  she  is  satisfied. 


TflE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE         99 

Man  requires  a  larger  increase.  It  is  in  his 
power  to  secure  it  in  two  ways;  he  can  make  the 
condition  of  the  soil  favourable  for  the  germination 
of  the  seeds  and  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  he 
can  prevent  competition  by  isolating  his  plants. 
All  of  these  conditions  are  secured  by  tillage.  The 
plow  buries  wild  plants  and  loosens  and  deepens 
the  soil;  the  karrow  makes  it  mellow  to  receive  the 
seed;  the  cultivator  kills  the  weeds  that  would 
dispute  with  the  crop  for  possession  of  the  land. 
Simple  as  these  statements  are,  they  are  funda- 
mental truths. 

An  Improvement  on  Nature. — The  farmer  whose 
land  yields  the  most  increase  is  the  one  who  im- 
proves upon  Nature  the  most,  in  sowing  seeds  and 
in  growing  plants.  He  sows  seed,  not  in  Nature's 
haphazard  way,  wherever  the  wind  blows,  on  good 
soil  or  poor,  but  only  upon  soil  that  is  congenial 
for  that  plant  and  that  has  been  specially  pre- 
pared to  receive  it.  He  grows  plants  alone,  not 
in  a  hand  to  hand  struggle  with  other  plants  that 
he  does  not  want.  In  fact,  a  man's  success  in 
farming  is  measured  largely  by  his  ability  to  re- 
move from  his  plants  the  uncertainties  and  the 
competition  that  these  plants  would  have  to  face 
were  they  growing  in  the  wild.  This  result  is 
accomplished  largely  by  tillage. 

Good  tillage  is  especially  needed  in  making  the 
seed  bed.  The  farmer  who  does  the  most  harrow- 
ing is  usually  rewarded  at  harvest  time  far  beyond 
the  value  of  the  time  spent.  All  seeds  need  a 
mellow  soil,  a  warm  soil  and  a  well  ventilated  soi1 
in  order  to  germinate  quickly  and  grow  fast.  Plow- 
ing and  harrowing  make  the  soil  finer  and  secure 
these  conditions;  and  the  degree  of  mellowness, 
warmth,  and  aeration  it  has  is  governed  very  largely 


100  SOILS 

by  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  land  is  fitted. 
It  is  one  of  the  common  remarks  at  farmers'  insti- 
tutes that  too  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  "tillage 
of  preparation,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called;  that 
farmers  content  themselves  with  plowing  and  then 
harrowing  the  soil  once  or  twice  before  seeding, 
when  perhaps  three  or  four  harrowings  and  one  or 
two  turns  with  the  clod  crusher  would  have  paid. 
Seeds  will  not  germinate  readily  if  they  are  placed 
between  three  or  four  large  lumps  of  soil.  No 
matter  how  moist  the  lumps  are,  the  seeds  dry  out 
fast  because  they  do  not  touch  the  soil  on  all  sides. 
If  the  lumps  are  broken  into  fine  soil  and  the  seeds 
are  planted  in  this,  they  have  an  even  and  constant 
supply  of  water.  It  is  as  impracticable  and  un- 
profitable to  sow  seeds  upon  lumps  as  to  spread 
fertiliser  upon  lumps. 

The  number  of  times  that  it  will  pay  to  harrow 
when  fitting  a  seed  bed  depends  entirely  upon  its 
texture;  a  sandy  loam  soil  may  be  as  mellow  and 
friable  after  one  turn  around  the  field  as  a  clay 
loam  is  after  three  turns.  Moreover  it  is  impossible 
to  make  some  soils  mellow,  even  with  a  dozen 
harrowings.  The  trouble  lies  deeper — it  may  be 
lack  of  humus  or  poor  drainage,  which  must  be 
corrected  in  other  ways.  But  up  to  a  certain 
point  tillage  does  fine,  loosen,  drain,  aerate,  and 
warm  the  soil  and  fit  it  for  growing  a  profitable 
crop.  Some  soils  respond  to  this  tillage  of  prep- 
aration better  than  others;  a  good  farmer  soon 
finds  out,  by  experimenting  and  observing,  how 
thoroughly  it  pays  to  fit  his  land.  He  may 
be  surprised  to  find  that  one  or  two  extra 
turns  with  the  harrow  will  pay  him  much  more 
when  harvest  time  comes  than  the  cost  of  the 
labour. 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE       101 

TILLAGE    TO    KILL   WEEDS 

The  second  object  of  tilling — that  of  killing 
weeds — is  forced  upon  the  attention  of  the  farmer 
with  back-breaking  and  sweat-rolling  regularity. 
A  weed  is  a  plant  that  is  not  wanted — whether  it 
is  a  Canada  thistle  in  the  pasture,  a  daisy  in  the 
meadow,  quack-grass  in  the  corn  or  "pusley"  in 
the  garden.  The  plant  may  be  innocent  enough 
in  itself,  and  may  sometimes  even  be  grown  as  a 
crop,  as  when  sand  vetch  sown  this  year  for  hay 
comes  up  next  year  in  the  corn  planted  on  the  same 
land.  A  weed  is  a  plant  out  of  place,  accord- 
ing to  man's  scheme,  so  he  becomes  its  bitter 
enemy. 

The  Tirade  Against  Weeds. — From  the  amount 
of  wordy  abuse  that  weeds  have  to  stand 
from  man  one  would  think  that  they  are 
free  moral  agents  and  capable  of  choosing  be- 
tween the  already  overcrowded  wildwood,  where 
they  would  have  to  fight  for  a  living,  and  the  in- 
viting farm  lands  where  the  soil  has  been  made 
soft  and  comfortable.  If  one  were  to  ask  a 
thousand  farmers  in  this  country,  "What  is  the 
greatest  trouble  you  have  in  farming  ? "  the  com- 
plaint that  would  rise  most  readily  to  the  lips  of 
nine  hundred  of  them  would  be  "I  could  get  along 
all  right  if  it  was  not  for  those  pesky  weeds." 
Weed  recipes,  purporting  to  be  short  cuts  to  the 
extermination  of  this  torment,  are  offered  by  the 
score.  Many  bulletins  and  several  books  on  weeds 
keep  constantly  before  him  the  danger  of  relaxing 
watchfulness  against  the  great  pest.  It  would  al- 
most seem,  from  all  that  is  said  about  and  against 
weeds,  that  if  only  those  plants  that  we  put  into  the 
soil  could  grow,  and  no  others,  the  chief  impediment 


102  SOILS 

to  the  farmer's  prosperity  would  be  removed  and 
he  could  take  a  half  holiday  six  times  a  week. 

Friendly  Words  for  Weeds. — In  recent  years  there 
has  grown  up  an  entirely  different  attitude  toward 
weeds  on  the  part  of  some  people.  We  are  told  that 
weeds  are  a  great  blessing,  not  a  curse.  The  reason 
given  is  that  if  there  were  no  weeds  to  kill,  many 
farmers  would  not  cultivate  their  soil;  hence  the 
other  benefits  of  tillage — saving  moisture  and  set- 
ting free  plant  food — would  not  be  secured  as  often 
as  they  are  now,  when  a  multitude  of  weeds  makes 
it  necessary  to  till  frequently.  We  have  also  been 
told  that  if  a  man  cultivates  his  land  as  often  as  he 
ought,  in  order  to  secure  these  other  benefits  of 
tillage,  weeds  will  not  bother  him  much. 

Here,  then,  are  two  extreme  views  concerning 
the  warfare  between  man  and  weeds.  One  man 
says  that  all  that  it  is  necessary  to  do  is  to  cultivate 
often  enough  to  keep  down  weeds  and  the  other 
benefits  will  be  secured  in  so  doing.  The  other 
man  says  that  if  the  soil  is  tilled  as  it  ought  to 
be  in  order  to  save  water  all  the  weeds  will  be  killed 
in  so  doing.  Both  are  radicals.  The  fact  is  that 
sometimes  the  soil  should  be  stirred  when  there 
are  no  weeds  in  sight;  and  sometimes  weeds 
are  so  bad  that  the  soil  must  be  stirred  two  or 
three  times  as  often  as  would  be  necessary 
were  we  considering  only  soil  moisture  and  plant 
food.  During  a  hot,  muggy  July,  with  heavy 
thunder  storms  about  every  other  day,  the  hoed 
crops  would  not  suffer  for  lack  of  water  were 
it  not  for  weeds.  Purslane,  ragweed,  crab-grass 
and  a  host  of  other  worthies  luxuriate  over  the 
ground,  choking  and  stifling  the  crop  and  pumping 
immense  quantities  of  water  from  the  soil. 

The  chief  way  in  which  weeds  injure  crops  is  by 


35.    POTATOES  IX  DIRE  XEED  OF  TILLAGE 

gt 

Soil  water  is  being  lost  rapidly,  and  the  plants  need  it 


36.     POTATOES  LUXURIATING  UNDER  A  MULCH  OF  LOOSE,  DRY  SOIL 
This  preserves  the  moisture  to  them.     This  crop  will  "pan  out";  the  other  will  not 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE       103 

robbing  them  of  water.  They  do  use  some 
plant  food,  but  the  loss  is  not  as  great.  These 
weeds  must  be  killed,  even  if  one  has  to 
use  the  cultivator  twice  as  often  as  would 
be  necessary  otherwise.  On  the  other  hand 
there  may  come  a  dry  August  during  which 
few  weeds  start,  but  it  is  very  essential  that  the 
cultivator  be  run  over  the  ground  once  or  twice 
a  week -so  as  to  keep  a  layer  of  loose  dry  soil  be- 
tween the  precious  soil  moisture  and  the  air  which 
is  hungry  to  suck  it  up.  I  have  a  little  garden  back 
of  my  nouse.  During  a  rainy  spring  if  I  worked  it 
enough  to  keep  down  all  weeds  it  would  be  about 
three  times  a  week,  which  is  about  three  times 
oftener  than  it  would  be  necessary  to  cultivate 
were  soil  moisture  and  plant  food  the  chief  con- 
cern. The  question  as  to  whether  weeds  or  the 
saving  of  water,  should  be  the  guide  to  the  fre- 
quency of  tillage  depends  upon  the  locality  and 
the  season ;  it  is  as  often  one  as  the  other. 

Weeds  a  Spur  to  the  Sluggard. — Weeds,  are  how- 
ever, a  mentor  that  we  but  half  appreciate.  It  is 
easy  to  advise  "Till  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  keep 
soil  water  from  escaping,"  but  the  escape  of  soil 
water  is  a  very  intangible  thing,  likewise  the  setting 
free  of  plant  food,  a  benefit  of  tillage  that  will  be 
mentioned  shortly.  We  cannot  see  either  of  them, 
and  most  of  us  are  apt  to  be  careless  about  the 
things  we  cannot  see.  But  weeds  are  very  much 
in  evidence.  If  the  average  man  sees  a  dozen  lusty 
pigweeds  waving  triumphantly  above  his  early 
potatoes  he  will  be  mucn  more  likely  to  cultivate 
and  hoe  his  garden  than  if  he  happens  to  notice 
that  there  is  a  thin,  moisture-losing  crust  on  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  Every  good  farmer  has  a  big 
bump  of  pride  which  begins  to  thump  impatiently 


104  SOILS 

when  his  crops  get  weedy,  especially  if  they  are 
close  to  the  road.  So  he  begins  to  stir  the  soil  with 
a  cultivator  and  to  dig  into  it  with  a  hoe;  then  the 
chief  mission  of  weeds  in  farming  has  been  ac- 
complished. From  the  beginning  of  husbandry 
they  have  pricked  men  on  to  till  the  soil.  Now  we 
know  of  other  reasons  for  keeping  the  soil  stirred 
around  our  plants,  reasons  that  are  important 
enough  to  make  the  best  farmers  till  when  there  are 
no  weeds.  But  weeds  will  always  remain  the  spur 
of  the  sluggard — and  a  fairly  reliable  tillage  guide 
to  the  rest  of  us. 

TILLAGE   TO   SAVE   WATER 

Aside  from  preparing  the  soil  to  receive  the  crop 
and  killing  the  weeds  that  would  compete  with  the 
crop,  tillage  accomplishes  another  result  that  may 
be  even  more  valuable  to  the  farmer.  It  saves 
soil  water,  as  has  been  described  in  the  preceeding 
chapter,  by  establishing  a  mulch,  whicn  makes  it 
impossible  for  much  water  to  evaporate.  The 
amount  of  water  that  is  saved  by  keeping  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  thoroughly  stirred  may  be  as  much 
as  one-third  of  the  total  amount  that  the  soil  re- 
ceives. Snyder  found  that  the  soil  of  a  corn  field 
which  had  been  cultivated  frequently  contained 
17  per  cent,  of  water  in  the  layer  of  soil  from  9 
to  17  inches  deep,  while  the  same  layer  of 
soil  in  another  part  of  the  same  field,  but  which 
had  not  been  tilled,  contained  only  12  per  cent, 
of  water. 

The  efficiency  of  a  soil  mulch  in  preventing  the 
escape  of  soil  water  needs  no  further  proof  than 
observation  in  orchard,  field  and  garden.  During 
a  summer  drought  the  corn  leaves  shrivel  first 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE       105 

where  the  farmer  has  cultivated  least.  Just  be- 
neath the  loose  dry  soil  of  his  cultivated  field  he 
finds  moist  soil,  with  plant  roots  revelling  in  it. 
On  an  uncultivated  field  he  may  have  to  dig  down 
a  foot  or  more  before  he  finds  moist  soil.  Even  a 
casual  examination  of  the  farms  in  any  community 
will  convince  a  man  that  the  operation  which  con- 
tributes most  largely  to  success  or  failure  in  farming 
is  tillage,  chiefly  in  its  relation  to  the  saving  of  sou 
water. 

Tillage  to  Increase  the  Water-holding  Capacity 
of  a  Soil. — Besides  saving  water  by  surface  tillage 
tne  farmer  can  increase  the  capacity  of  his  soil  to 
hold  water  by  deep  tillage,  as  by  fall  plowing  and 
by  subsoiling.  These  operations  loosen  the  soil 
to  a  depth  of  5  to  14  inches  and  thereby  enable  it 
to  retain  more  of  the  water  that  falls  upon  it  as  rain 
or  snow,  a  large  part  of  which  runs  off  as  surface 
drainage  when  the  soil  is  hard,  carrying  with  it, 
perhaps,  much  fine  soil.  The  shallow  plowing  so 
common  in  parts  of  the  South  is  responsible  for 
much  of  the  loss  of  soil  by  washing  in  this  region. 

Heavy  clay  soils  and  other  soils  that  are  quite 
compact,  so  that  they  absorb  water  very  slowly, 
are  benefited  by  subsoiling  and  fall  plowing.  Soils 
containing  a  large  amount  of  sand  are  not  bene- 
fited by  this  treatment — they  are  already  too  loose. 
The  methods  of  plowing  and  subsoiling  are  con- 
sidered at  length  in  the  following  chapter. 

DRY   FARMING 

An  important  phase  of  tillage,  in  its  relation  to 
the  saving  of  soil  water,  is  the  farm  practice  now 
commonly  called  "dry  farming."  In  reality  all 
farming  that  does  not  make  use  of  irrigation  is  dry 


106  SOILS 

farming,  but  the  term  is  commonly  understood  to 
mean  the  growing  of  crops  in  the  arid  or  semi-arid 
regions  without  irrigation.  In  recent -years  much 
interest  has  been  manifested  in  dry  farming,  and 
its  methods  have  been  applied  with  increasing 
success  over  a  constantly  widening  territory.  The 
sections  where  it  is  practised  are  chiefly  eastern 
North  Dakota,  eastern  South  Dakota,  western 
Kansas,  western  Oklahoma,  central  Texas,  eastern 
Washington,  eastern  Oregon,  and  scattered  areas 
in  Idaho,  California,  Utah,  Montana,  Colorado, 
New  Mexico,  Wyoming  and  Arizona.  These 
regions  include  approximately  300,000,000  acres. 
Nevada  is  said  to  be  the  only  arid  state  in  which  dry 
farming  cannot  be  practised  successfully. 

For  the  most  part  dry  farming  is  practised  on  the 
border  land  of  aridity,  and  on  land  in  arid  regions 
that  it  is  impossible  or  impracticable  to  irrigate. 
There  are  many  millions  of  acres  of  land  in  the 
arid  and  semi-arid  regions  that  are  above  the 
"ditch  line";  that  is,  they  lie  so  high  that  the  ex- 
pense of  bringing  water  to  them  would  be  greater 
than  the  returns.  Of  such  a  nature,  for  example, 
are  the  high  bench  lands  in  the  Cache  Valley,  Utah. 
Moreover,  the  amount  of  water  in  the  arid  and 
semi-arid  regions  that  is  available  for  irrigation  is 
sufficient  to  water  but  a  small  portion  of  the  entire 
area.  Dry  farming  is  the  only  kind  of  farming 
possible  on  millions  of  acres  of  land  in  the  West. 

Dry  farming  is  an  attempt  to  grow  the  common 
crops  with  the  minimum  amount  of  moisture. 
Most  of  the  sections  in  which  it  has  been  successful 
have  a  rainfall  of  from  10  to  15  inches,  from  2  to 
5  inches  of  which,  and  often  more,  is  lost  by  drain- 
age and  seepage.  Some  dry  farming  sections  have 
less  than  10  inches  of  rainfall,  yet  crops  are  grown 


37.     WATER  HELD  BY  A  COARSE  AND  BY  A  FINE  SOIL 

The  finer  a  soil  is  the  more  water  it  will  hold.     An  abundance  of  soil  water  is  as  essential 

to  the  production  of  large  crops  as  an  abundance  of  plant 

food.     Tillage  makes  a  soil  finer 


A  LUMPY  SOIL 


The  soil  in  these  lumps  is  useless  to  crops  for  the  time  being,  as  the  root  hairs  feed  only 

on  the  outside  of  small  particles.     Break  up  these  lumps  by  wise  tillage 

and  by  adding  humus  and  so  increase  the  "  pasturage"  of  the  crops 


39.     A  PERFECT  SOIL  MULCH 
It  is  five  inches  to  moist  soil.     The  surface  layer  of  dry  soil  acts  as  a  blanket 


40.    WHERE  TROUBLESOME   WEEDS  ARE   WONT  TO   CONGREGATE 
AND  TO  MULTIPLY 

Keep  the  fence  rows  clean  or,  better  yet,  do  away  with  them  altogether.     Many 
fences  and  walls  are  unnecessary  - 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE       107 

that  compare  very  favourably  with  those  of  Eastern 
farms  that  receive  from  30  to  40  inches.  Dry 
farming  is  never  resorted  to,  however,  except  when 
irrigation  is  impossible  or  inexpedient.  It  is  an 
illustration  of  what  can  be  done  by  tillage  to  con- 
serve soil  water  that  every  farmer  in  the  humid  East 
may  consider  with  profit. 

Dry  Farming  Methods. — The  success  of  dry 
farming  is  based  upon  a  most  thorough  application 
of  the  principles  of  tillage.  Two  things  are  essen- 
tial :  the  subsoil  must  be  put  in  condition  to  receive 
and  hold  all  the  water  that  falls  upon  it,  and  the 
surface  soil  must  be  made  dry  and  mellow  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  that  water  by  evaporation.  A 
third  essential,  in  some  cases,  is  to  secure  seeds  that 
are  adapted  to  these  trying  conditions. 

In  preparing  the  subsoil,  an  effort  is  usually 
made  to  leave  it  compact.  Sometimes  this  is  done 
with  a  special  tool  called  a  subsoil  packer.  This 
is  a  bevel  wheel  roller  that  follows  the  plow,  rolling 
down  and  packing  the  subsoil.  Each  of  its  ten 
wheels  has  V-shaped  rims  which  press  deeply  into 
the  soil,  compacting  it  below.  The  object  is  to 
make  the  subsoil  so  firm  that  the  air  spaces  will  be 
very  small,  hence  air  will  not  circulate  freely 
through  the  soil  and  dry  it  out.  The  soil  packer 
usually  accompanies  a  steam  plow  outfit,  which  is 

generally  used  in  dry  farming.  A  weighted  disk 
arrow,  with  disks  set  straight,  is  also  used.  The 
harrow  is  then  put  on — the  same  day  if  possible 
— and  three  or  four  inches  of  the  surface  soil  is 
made  into  the  most  efficient  kind  of  soil  mulch, 
which  is  renewed  frequently.  Keep  the  harrowing 
close  up  to  the  plowing.  The  mulch  established 
in  dry  farming  would  be  a  revelation  to  those 
Eastern  farmers  who  barely  scratch  the  surface 


108  SOILS 

of  their  fields,  scarcely  keeping  down  weeds,  and 
who  complain  about  drought. 

The  combination  of  tools  sometimes  used  in  dry 
farming  is  remarkable.  Frequently  one  32-horse- 
power  traction  engine  will  drag  twelve  14-inch 
plows,  two  corrugated  iron  rollers,  two  clod  crushers, 
besides  harrows  and  seed  drills,  the  whole  making 
a  long  procession,  with  unbroken  land  in  front  and 
smooth  and  seeded  land  behind.  Such  an  outfit 
prepares  and  seeds  about  35  acres  a  day. 

When  the  rainfall  is  very  scanty  it  is  necessary 
for  success  in  dry  farming  to  summer-fallow  the 
land  every  other  year.  The  object  of  the  summer 
fallow  is  to  store  water  for  the  next  crop.  Excellent 
tillage,  together  with  packing  the  subsoil  in  some 
cases,  is  the  simple  and  easy  secret  of  dry  farming. 
It  is  the  application,  in  an  almost  perfect  way, 
of  a  principle  that  has  been  known,  but  usually 
very  imperfectly  applied,  for  several  hundred  years. 

Crops  Under  Dry  Farming. — The  crop  grown 
most  largely  under  dry  farming  is  Durum  or 
macaroni  wheat.  This  was  introduced  into  Amer- 
ica from  Russia  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  about  ten  years  ago  and  has  proved 
a  most  valuable  acquisition.  In  Kussia  it  has  been 
grown  successfully  for  many  years  on  the  steppes, 
where  the  rainfall  is  less  than  10  inches.  The 
readiness  with  which  this  remarkable  plant  lends 
itself  to  dry  farming,  and  the  wonderful  increase 
in  its  culture,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  first 
large  crop  of  macaroni  wheat  in  the  United  States 
was  harvested  in  1901,  while  the  crop  of  1905  was 
close  to  30,000,000  bushels.  Average  crops  are 
15  to  25  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  in  the  arid  region 
regions,  and  30  to  50  bushels  in  the  semi-arid 
regions.  It  thrives  only  in  a  very  dry  climate. 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE       109 

Besides  Durum  wheat,  Turkestan  alfalfa,  Kaffir 
corn,  sorghum,  emmer,  dwarf  milo  maize,  and  a 
number  of  forage  grasses  are  grown  under  dry 
farming.  Rye  and  barley  are  also  grown  some- 
what. It  is  important  to  sow  less  seed  than  in 
humid  farming,  30  to  35  Ibs.  per  acre  is  usually 
enough.  This  seed  should  be  grown  in  semi-arid, 
not  in  humid,  sections. 

The  present  interest  in  dry  farming  in  many 
parts  of  the  West  amounts  to  little  less  than  a 
speculative  fever.  Dry  farming  companies  are 
being  organised  to  plant  farms  of  3,000  acres  or 
larger.  The  values  on  " desert"  land  are  appre- 
ciating rapidly,  in  some  cases  running  from  $2.50 
to  $50  an  acre  in  two  or  three  years.  Undoubtedly 
dry  farming  is  doing  much  and  will  do  vastly  more 
to  reclaim  land  formerly  considered  worthless  be- 
cause of  lack  of  water  for  irrigation.  Next  to 
irrigation  it  is  the  most  important  agricultural 
practice  of  our  times  in  the  arid  West.  Yet  it  is 
altogether  likely  that  land  will  be  used  for  dry 
farming  which  ought  never  to  be  cleared  of  sage 
brush.  The  present  enthusiasm  over  dry  farming 
bears  some  of  the  ear-marks  of  a  boom.  There  are 
bound  to  be  some  disappointed  and  some  ruined 
practitioners  of  dry  farming,  just  as  there  were 
thousands  of  disappointed  and  ruined  "rain- 
belters"  in  western  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the 
Dakotas  twenty  years  ago.  Undoubtedly  the 
area  that  can  be  brought  under  profitable  dry  farm- 
ing may  be  greatly  extended,  as  better  methods  for 
husbanding  scanty  rainfall  become  more  gener- 
ally known  and  practised.  But  there  is  an 
unusual  amount  of  risk  connected  with  it,  and  no 
man  should  undertake  this  kind  of  farming  until 
he  has  investigated  it  thoroughly.  Whenever 


110  SOILS 

possible  irrigation  should  be  used  to  supplement  dry 
farming. 

TILLAGE   TO    PROMOTE    FERTILITY 

The  longer  a  soil  lies  idle,  so  far  as  the  farmer  is 
concerned,  but  is  covered  with  Nature's  crops  year 
by  year,  the  richer  it  becomes.  The  chief  reason 
for  this  is  pointed  out  in  Chapter  XII.  Nature's 
crops  die,  decay  and  are  returned  to  the  soil,  adding 
to  it  what  they  have  taken  out  and  improving 
its  texture;  the  farmer's  crops  are  mostly  removed. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  also  true  that  tillage  makes 
the  soil  more  fertile.  It  will  do  so  as  long  as  the 
supply  of  humus  that  is  in  the  soil  when  it  is  cleared 
for  cropping  is  maintained,  and  provided  as  much 
plant  food  is  added  to  the  soil  each  year  as  is  re- 
moved in  crops.  But  since  neither  of  these  con- 
ditions are  complied  with,  it  usually  happens  that 
the  longer  the  soil  is  tilled  the  poorer  it  gets.  The 
falling  off  in  its  ability  to  produce  crops  would  be 
very  much  greater,  however,  were  it  not  for  the 
food-producing  power  of  tillage. 

How  Tillage  Increases  Fertility — The  explana- 
tion of  the  power  of  tillage  to  increase  fertility 
is  very  simple.  In  Chapter  I  it  was  statea 
that  the  chief  agency  that  has  broken  up  the 
rocks  and  made  them  into  soil  is  weathering — the 
action  of  water,  air,  heat  and  cold.  This  action  is 
still  going  on;  soils  are  being  weathered,  as  well  as 
rocks  and  stones;  their  grains  are  becoming  finer, 
their  plant  food  more  available.  Tillage  makes 
a  soil  more  fertile  chiefly  because  it  loosens  it,  thus 
allowing  a  free  entrance  to  these  agencies  that 
make  it  finer,  and  hence  expose  more  surface  for 
the  roots  to  feed  upon.  Every  time  that  a  soil 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE       111 

is  plowed,  harrowed  or  cultivated  it  is  loosened, 
and  air,  water,  heat  and  cold  enter  it  more  freely 
and  attack  it  more  vigorously.  Nearly  all  farm 
soils,  even  some  that  produce  poor  crops,  contain 
enormous  quantities  of  plant  food  (Chapter  XI), 
most  of  which,  however,  is  in  such  a  form  that  the 
plants  cannot  use  it,  being  "unavailable"  as  the 
chemist  says.  Tillage  makes  much  of  this  latent 
plant  food  available  from  year  to  year,  by  pro- 
moting better  weathering. 

Tillage  mixes  the  soil  grains  and  changes  their 
relative  positions  so  that  certain  particles  are 
brought  together  that  have  been  separated  before, 
and  there  is  greater  likelihood  of  chemical  changes. 
It  may  carry  to  the  surface  grains  of  soil  that  have 
been  lying  several  inches  deep  for  many  years,  thus 
exposing  them  to  weathering.  It  fills  the  soil  with 
air  which  hastens  the  decay  of  vegetation,  thus 
making  humus  and  a  large  amount  of  carbonic 
acid.  This  carbonic  acid  becomes  a  part  of  the 
soil  water  and  greatly  increases  its  power  to  dis- 
solve plant  food  from  the  mineral  portion  of  the 
soil.  The  better  aeration  of  the  soil  due  to  tillage 
is  favourable  for  the  growth  of  the  valuable  nitro- 
gen-fixing bacteria  described  on  page  40  .  The 
activities  of  other  beneficial  germs  in  the  soil  are 
promoted  by  the  warmth,  drainage  and  aeration 
that  follow  tillage.  If  it  were  not  for  these  benef- 
icent effects  of  tillage  soils  would  become  "worn- 
out"  much  sooner  than  they  do  now  from  con- 
tinued cropping  with  little  return. 

Tillage  the  "Poor  Man's  Manure"-  -Tillage  has 
been  called  "the  poor  man's  manure,"  with  some 
fitness.  Stirring  the  soil  does  enrich  it  to  the  ex- 
tent that  it  enables  the  farmer  to  use  more  of  the 
native  plant  food  in  the  soil.  But  it  is  not  a  manure 


112  SOILS 

in  the  sense  of  plant  food  applied.  The  value  of 
thorough  tillage  to  increase  fertility  was  first  dem- 
onstrated about  1730  by  a  wise  old  English 
farmer,  Jethro  Tull.  We  read  in  his  "Horse  Hoe- 
ing Husbandry"  that  he  planted  wheat  in  rows  far 
enough  apart  to  allow  tillage  between  them,  and 
raised  more  profitable  crops  without  adding  ma- 
nure than  his  neighbours,  who  manured  highly 
but  tilled  little.  In  his  enthusiasm  Tull  made  the 
mistake  of  believing  that  tillage  could  take  the 
place  of  fertilising,  which  we  now  know  to  be 
wrong.  Good  tillage — deep  plowing,  thorough 
harrowing,  frequent  cultivating — will  largely  reduce 
the  fertiliser  bill  or  delay  the  day  when  fertilisers 
and  manures  will  be  needed,  because  it  enables  the 
farmer  to  get  the  most  from  the  soluble  plant  food 
already  in  the  soil.  But  there  always  comes  a  time 
when  tillage  must  be  supplemented  with  manuring 
or  fertilising.  Tillage  is  not  fertilising;  but,  if 
done  thoroughly,  it  may  save  much  fertilising. 

THE    ALCHEMY   THAT   FOLLOWS   THE   PLOW 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  simply  stirring  the  soil,  the 
commonest  work  on  the  farm  and  the  work  which 
often  receives  the  least  thought,  sets  at  work  many 
agencies  that  exert  a  profound  influence  on  the 
productivity  of  the  land.  Every  tiller  of  the  soil 
should  know  something  of  the  wonderful  alchemy 
that  follows  the  plowsliare  and  cultivator  tooth. 
As  he  plows,  harrows,  cultivates,  rolls,  drags,  he 
should  think,  not  that  this  is  so  much  dirt  that  he 
must  handle,  so  many  weeds  that  he  must  kill,  but 
that  he  is  getting  the  soil  laboratory  ready  for  the 
delicate  reactions  and  subtle  changes  that  are  a 
part  of  the  wonderful  process  by  which  soil  is  made 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  TILLAGE       113 

into  plants.  There  is  much  more  to  tillage  than 
burying  trash,  killing  weeds  and  mellowing  lumps. 
The  farmer  who  sees  only  these  things  when  he 
stirs  the  soil  is  not  getting  as  much  pleasure  from  his 
business  as  he  might.  As  he  trudges  up  and  down 
the  long  field  behind  the  sweating  team,  turning  the 
moist  earth  into  crumbling  furrow  slices,  or  guiding 
the  cultivator  between  rows  of  thrifty  plants,  the 
work  will  seem  less  irksome  if  he  thinks  of  these 
wonderful  activities  that  he  has  set  in  motion,  and 
plans  how  he  may  keep  the  soil  laboratory  in  the 
best  running  order. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    OBJECTS    AND    METHODS    OF    PLOWING 

PLOWING  is  of  greater  antiquity  than  any 
other  tillage  operation  because  it  was  found 
necessary  to  break  ground  so  that  seeds  could 
be  planted  long  before  stirring  the  soil  for  other 
purposes  was  thought  of.  Four  thousand  years 
ago,  and  probably  earlier,  the  plow  was  the  chief 
and  usually  the  only  implement  of  tillage.  The 
style  of  plow  that  was  used  at  different  periods  in 
the  history  of  the  world  is  a  very  reliable  index 
to  the  agricultural  development  of  the  time;  just 
as  to-day  we  gauge  the  ability  of  a  farmer  chiefly 
by  the  skill  and  thoroughess  with  which  he  handles 
the  soil. 

The  Early  Plows. — The  primitive  plow  was  a 
small  tree  having  a  small  branch  starting  out  from 
it  in  the  form  of  the  letter  V.  The  trunk  of  this 
was  the  beam,  and  the  branch,  which  was  much 
shorter  than  the  other  and  was  sharpened,  was  the 
point.  The  beam  and  point  were  often  braced 
by  being  tied  together  with  a  withe;  a  handle  was 
made  by  lashing  another  branch  to  the  beam. 
When  this  crude  tool  was  dragged  along  the  sur- 
face it  scratched  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  three  or 
four  inches — deep  enough  to  allow  seeds  to  be 
planted,  which  was  considered  the  only  reason  for 
plowing  in  those  days.  This  very  unsatisfactory 
tool  was  replaced  by  wooden  plows  of  various  pat- 
terns, most  of  which  simply  stirred  the  soil,  but 
did  not  invert  it.  Not  till  about  the  eleventh 

114 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  115 

century  were  plows  with  iron  points  used  to  any 
extent.  These  plows  were  made  by  local  black- 
smiths in  different  localities  and  were  thus  ex- 
tremely variable  in  style  and  in  value,  according 
to  the  skill  of  the  blacksmith.  Greater  uniformity 
and  a  decided  increase  in  the  value  of  plows  re- 
sulted from  the  discovery  of  how  to  make  plow- 
shares of  cast  iron,  in  1785,  and  of  case  hardened  or 
chilled  shares,  in  1803. 

Early  American  Plows. — As  late  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century  the  plow  commonly 
used  in  this  country  was  made  mostly  of  wood,  the 
mouldboard  and  point  being  partially  protected  by 
worn-out  horseshoes  and  other  scraps  of  iron  that 
were  nailed  upon  them.  It  was  often  about  twelve 
feet  long  and  required  eight  to  ten  oxen  to  draw  it, 
and  one  man  to  ride  upon  the  beam.  A  good  cast 
iron  plow  had  been  made  by  Charles  Newbald,  an 
American  farmer,  and  patented  in  1797,  but  it  never 
became  popular  solely  because  of  the  prejudice 
against  the  innovation.  Farmers  said  that  cast- 
iron  plows  "-poisoned  the  land"  and  "caused 
weeds  to  grow."  By  1810,  however,  most  of  the 
prejudice  against  iron  plows  had  passed  away  and 
they  came  into  common  use.  These  early  cast 
plows,  however,  were  mostly  made  of  one  piece, 
and  when  the  point  was  dulled  the  whole  plow  was 
useless.  The  next  step  was  to  provide  inter- 
changeable points  so  that  the  plow  could  be  easily 
repaired. 

It  was  not  until  near  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury that  plow  makers  clearly  comprehended  the 
chief  function  of  a  plow — to  pulverise  the  soil. 
Hitherto  their  efforts  had  been  directed  mainly 
toward  making  a  plow  that  would  invert  the  soil 
and  so  bury  trash.  The  early  plowshares  had 


116  SOILS 

been  broad,  high  and  bent  over  at  the  top  very 
little,  so  that  they  inverted  the  soil  very  neatly  but 
did  not  crumble  it  much.  It  was  soon  seen  that 
the  only  way  to  accomplish  this  end  was  to  make 
the  furrow  slice  twist  as  it  turned  over.  Then  was 
produced  the  modern  broad,  flat  plowshare  with 
overhanging  mouldboard,  which  accomplishes  this 
result  admirably. 

Subsequent  to  this  discovery,  during  the  last 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  improvements  on 
the  plow  followed  rapidly.  The  length  of  the 
beam  and  handles  was  increased  and  the  latter 
set  lower,  thus  making  the  plow  much  easier 
to  control.  The  jointer,  that  most  useful 
adjunct  of  the  modern  plow,  was  introduced  and 
improved.  One  of  the  greatest  troubles  with  the 
early  plows  was  that  they  did  not  "scour"  well; 
that  is  dirt  collected  on  the  mouldboard,  making 
it  rough  and  greatly  reducing  its  efficiency  and 
increasing  the  draft.  The  introduction  of  the 
Oliver  chilled  plow,  in  1870,  was  a  notable  event 
in  plow  making. 

About  1870  gang  plows  were  introduced.  The  first 
gang  plows  were  two  or  three  plows  fastened  to  one 
beam.  These  were  very  cumbersome  and  were  soon 
superseded  by  the  sulky  gang  plow,  which  is  largely 
used  to-day,  especially  in  the  West.  Various  methods 
of  hardening  the  mouldboards  of  plows  were  tried, 
until  carbonising  or  chilling  came  into  general  use  for 
both  steel  and  cast  iron  plows.  Plow  making  has 
reached  its  highest  development  in  America,  from 
which  plows  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
There  are  about  9,000,000  plows  in  use  on  American 
farms,  representing  an  investment  of  $80,000,000 
for  this  tool  alone. 

The  Modern  Plow. — The  modern  plow  is  the 


o  ° 

U    x 


42.     FLAT-FURROW  PLOWING— THE  SLICE  COMPLETELY  INVERTED 
Handsome,  but  does  not  crumble  soil  enough.     Good  for  burying  herbage 


43.     CLAY  SOIL  PLOWED  WHEN  TOO  WET 
Note  the  glazed  appearance  of  the  furrow-slice.    This  will  make  the  soil  cloddy 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  117 

product  of  more  than  forty  centuries  of  slow  im- 
provement. During  this  time  it  has  developed 
from  a  crooked  stick,  which  barely  scratched  the 
surface  and  served  no  other  purpose  than  that  of 
permitting  the  seed  to  be  sown,  to  a  tool  that  pul- 
verises the  soil,  increases  its  water-holding  capacity, 
adds  to  its  fertility  and  has  a  more  important  in- 
fluence on  the  productiveness  of  the  land  than  any 
other  single  treatment  that  it  receives.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  substitutes 
for  the  plow  in  preparing  the  soil  for  crops,  but 
none  have  been  uniformly  successful,  although 
various  ingenious  spading  tools  are  of  considerable 
utility  in  special  cases. 

The  improvement  of  the  plow  and  of  plowing  will 
continue.  Where  it  is  practicable  for  the  farmer  to 
use  greater  power,  deeper  working  plows  will  be 
used,  which  will  pulverise  the  soil  to  a  much  greater 
depth,  thus  increasing  its  water-holding  capacity 
and  its  productivity.  The  fact  that  the  plow — the 
most  important  tool  of  agriculture — was  improved 
more  during  the  nineteenth  century  than  in  all  the 
centuries  that  precede,  well  illustrates  the  changed 
point  of  view,  in  this  new  era,  when  the  best 
thought  and  the  highest  inventive  genius  of  the  world 
are  being  brought  to  bear  upon  the  problems  of  the 
farmer.  Two  centuries  ago  this  would  not  have 
been  possible. 

THE    OBJECTS    OF   PLOWING 

Aside  from  crumbling  the  soil,  the  chief  objects 
of  plowing  are  to  destroy  wild  plants  so  that  culti- 
vated plants  may  be  grown  in  their  place;  and  to 
bury  the  trash,  as  corn  stubble  and  potato  vines, 
so  that  the  soil  may  be  made  ready  for  a  new  crop. 


118  SOILS 

A  plow  that  does  not  accomplish  both  of  these  re- 
sults is  faulty.  All  refuse  should  be  covered  so 
deeply  that  it  is  not  brought  to  the  surface  by  the 
harrow.  This  can  usually  be  done  without  com- 
pletely inverting  the  furrow  slice.  A  broad  and 
deep  furrow  buries  trash  better  than  one  that  is 
narrow  and  shallow.  If  tall  herbage  is  to  be 
plowed  under,  as  in  plowing  under  a  green  manur- 
ing crop  or  a  heavy  growth  of  weeds,  a  chain  with 
one  end  attached  to  the  beam  of  the  plow  and  the 
other  to  the  end  of  the  double-tree  will  make  it  easier 
to  bury  the  plants,  especially  if  a  jointer  is  used 
also.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  rake  the  coarsest 
part  of  the  manure  into  the  furrow  in  order  to 
bury  it  completely.  Herbage  and  refuse  that  is 
plowed  under  deeply  decays  more  rapidly  than  if 
it  is  turned  under  with  a  shallow  furrow,  because 
the  surface  soil  is  dryer.  When  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  herbage  or  trash  to  bury  the  team  should 
be  stronger  and  the  furrow  deeper  than  if  the  soil 
is  unencumbered.  If  the  furrow  slice  is  com- 

Eletely  inverted  herbage  and  trash  is  buried  best, 
ut  tne  soil  is  not  pulverised  much.  It  is  possible 
to  bury  herbage  and  trash  with  a  crumbling  furrow. 
Pulverising  the  Soil. — Unless  a  plow  pulver- 
ises the  soil  so  that  the  harrow  can  finish  tne  pro- 
cess easilv,  it  is  not  doing  all  that  should  be  ex- 
pected of  it.  Plows  differ  greatly  in  the  way  which 
they  leave  the  furrow.  The  furrow-slice  is  some- 
times completely  inverted  and  lies  flat  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  preceding  furrow ;  this  is  called  "flat- 
furrow  plowing."  Other  furrows  stand  nearly 
edgewise  without  being  crumbled  much;  this  is 
called  "  overlapping-f urrow  plowing."  Still  others 
are  broken  to  pieces  entirely;  this  is  called  "rol- 
ling-furrow plowing." 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  119 

The  way  in  which  the  surface  is  left  by  a  plow 
depends  chiefly  upon  the  style  of  the  mouldboard 
that  is  used;  the  bolder  or  more  overhanging  it  is 
the  more  completely  is  the  furrow-slice  broken. 
An  overhanging  mouldboard  prevents  the  furrow- 
slice  from  turning  flat  and  leaves  it  rough.  A 
rolling  furrow-slice  buries  herbage  and  trash  about 
as  well  as  a  flat  one  if  a  jointer  is  used;  and  it 
crumbles  the  soil  much  better.  A  plow  that  turns 
this  kind  of  furrow  is  the  best  for  most  conditions. 
Flat-furrow  plowing  is  the  handsomest  but  the 
poorest  plowing,  in  most  cases.  The  soil  is  not 
crumbled  and,  what  is  even  more  important,  the 
least  amount  of  surface  is  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is 
also  more  difficult  for  the  harrow  teeth  to  take  hold 
of  the  tips  of  these  slices  and  break  them  without 
distributing  the  sod  or  herbage  beneath.  But 
flat-furrow  plowing  covers  trash  and  herbage 
better  than  the  other  types  of  plowing,  so 
that  it  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  for 
plowing  stubble  land,  especially  if  it  is  fairly 
light. 

Lap-furrow  plowing,  in  which  the  furrow-slice 
is  only  partly  inverted,  being  left  on  edge  and  par- 
tially overlapping  the  preceding  furrow-slice, 
leaves  the  soil  fairly  well  pulverised  and  with  a 
ridge  surface  so  that  it  is  easily  mellowed  and  fined 
by  the  harrow,  but  it  does  not  bury  trash  or  herb- 
age well.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  fall  plowing, 
particularly  of  clayey  soils,  as  it  leaves  many  air 
spaces  beneath  the  furrow-slice  and  the  soil  is  fully 
exposed  to  weathering. 

It  is  well  worth  while  to  have  two  or  three  types 
of  plows  on  hand  and  use  each  acording  to  the 
results  it  accomplishes  and  the  purpose  m  view. 
This  costs  more,  but  greater  efficiency  results. 


120  SOILS 

A  very  slight  difference  in  the  lines  of  the  mould- 
board  may  make  wide  results  in  plowing.  Much 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Sandy  soils 
may  be  plowed  with  a  flat  furrow-slice  with  much 
less  detriment  than  clayey  soils,  which  need  much 
loosening  and  pulverising.  If  a  tenacious  soil  is 
plowed  so  that  the  furrow-slice  is  completely  in- 
verted it  is  much  heavier  and  colder,  for  the  season 
at  least,  than  if  the  furrow-slices  were  overlapped. 

Plowing  to  Prepare  the  Seed-bed. — It  is  expen- 
sive work  fitting  soil  to  receive  the  seed.  Plowing 
usually  represents  less  than  one-half  the  cost  of 
preparing  land  for  the  crop ;  harrowing,  dragging, 
planking,  etc.  if  well  done,  cost  more.  One  of  the 
objects  in  plowing,  then,  should  be  to  leave  the 
soil  in  such  a  condition  that  as  little  subsequent 
tillage  as  possible  will  be  needed  to  fit  the  land  for 
the  crop.  This  means  that  the  plowman  should 
not  be  satisfied  with  the  handsome  flat-furrow 
plowing  that  took  prizes  at  the  agricultural  fairs 
50  years  ago,  but  which  requires  much  expensive 
harrowing  to  make  it  mellow.  He  should  turn  a 
furrow-slice  that  is  just  as  loose  and  crumbly  as 
possible  and  still  bury  the  trash,  so  that  the  labour 
of  harrowing  may  be  reduced.  The  kind  of  plow 
that  should  be  used,  and  the  condition  in  which  the 
land  should  be  left,  depends  upon  the  kind  of  soil 
and  the  crop  to  be  grown  upon  it;  but  whenever 
a  plow  is  purchased  its  ability  to  pulverise  the  soil 
should  be  the  chief  measure  of  its  value. 

Plowing  to  Promote  Fertility. — It  does  this  by 
all  the  ways  mentioned  in  the  previous  chapter. 
It  exposes  the  soil  to  weathering  more  completely 
so  that  more  of  its  insoluble  plant  food  is  made 
available.  It  lets  in  the  air  which  corrodes  the 
minerals,  forms  carbonic  acid  with  the  humus  and 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  121 

enters  into  many  chemical  and  physical  combina- 
tions that  have  an  important  influence  on  soil  fer- 
tility. Deep  plowing  brings  to  the  surface  sub- 
soil that  has  not  lost  so  much  of  its  plant  food  as 
the  surface  soil,  not  having  been  weathered  so  com- 
pletely. After  one  or  two  seasons  this  rich,  raw 
soil  becomes  weathered  sufficiently  and  is  then 
utilised  by  crops.  Furthermore,  the  mere  fining 
of  the  soil  by  plowing  increases  its  fertility  by  pre- 
senting a  large  surface  for  the  roots  to  feed  upon. 
The  work  of  the  nitrogen-fixing  germs  and  of  other 
useful  agencies  that  make  for  fertility  is  wonder- 
fully hastened  by  the  warmth  and  aeration  induced 
by  plowing.  It  is  chiefly  the  depth  to  which  the 
plow  stirs  soil  that  gives  it  preeminence  among 
tillage  tools. 

Plowing  to  Deepen  the  Soil  Reservoir. — Plowing 
may  be  made  the  means  of  increasing  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  a  soil.  Soils  of  a  close  texture, 
as  the  clays  and  clay  loams,  may  be  made  to  hold 
more  water  by  deep  plowing,  because  rain  will  sink 
into  the  loosened  soil  better.  But  sandy  soils  should 
not  be  plowed  deeply;  they  are  too  leachy  at  best. 
Light  soils  through  which  water  passes  too  readily 
may  be  made  somewhat  more  retentive  by  plowing 
them  at  the  same  depth  every  year.  The  tramping 
of  the  horses  and  the  weight  of  the  plow  tend  to  com- 
pact the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  making 
a  kind  of  artificial  hard-pan,  or  "plow  bed,  "which 
checks  the  downward  passage  of  water  somewhat. 
The  depth  at  which  this  hard-pan  should  be  formed 
is  six  to  eight  inches,  depending  upon  the  rooting 
habits  of  the  crop  grown.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
plowing  heavy  soils  the  aim  should  be  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  the  hard-pan  by  varying  the  depth 
from  year  to  year.  The  benefit  of  deep  plowing 


122  SOILS 

to  prevent  the  washing  of  clay  soils  is  pointed  out 
in  a  following  paragraph. 

Plowing  to  Drain  the  Soil. — Plowing  may  also 
be  made  the  means  of  draining  a  soil.  It  is  best 
to  have  a  soil  of  such  texture  that  all  water  falling 
on  it  will  be  absorbed  or  pass  through  it.  But 
this  is  rarely  possible,  particularly  when  the  soil 
is  heavy.  Such  soils,  especially  if  nearly  level, 
may  often  be  plowed  into  "lands"  to  advantage. 
The  dead  furrows  may  be  in  the  same  place  for 
several  consecutive  seasons,  thus  throwing  the 
soil  into  slightly  elevated  beds.  Lands  from 
15  to  30  feet  wide  are  often  used,  but  lands 
60  to  75  feet  wide  drain  the  soil  more  efficiently, 
because  not  enough  water  may  flow  into  narrow 
dead-furrows  to  make  sufficient  current  to  carry 
it  off.  Even  when  the  field  is  fairly  well  drained, 
naturally  or  artificially,  it  is  best  to  leave  dead  fur- 
rows from  30  to  50  feet  apart,  though  not  in  the 
same  place  for  succeeding  years. 

Plowing  to  Establish  a  Mulch. — In  addition  to 
its  value  for  increasing  the  capacity  of  a  soil  to  hold 
water,  plowing  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  prevent- 
ing the  evaporation  of  water  already  in  the  soil. 
King,  who  has  made  many  noteworthy  experiments 
on  this  subject,  concludes  "In  the  conservation  of 
soil  moisture  by  tillage  there  is  no  way  of  develop- 
ing a  mulch  more  effective  than  that  which  is  pro- 
duced by  a  tool  working  in  the  manner  of  a  plow, 
to  completely  remove  a  layer  of  soil  and  lay  it  down 
again,  bottom  side  up,  in  a  loose  condition." 

HOW    DEEP   TO    PLOW 

There  is  sometimes  much  discussion  about  how 
deep  the  soil  should  be  plowed.  It  is  as  impossible 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  123 

to  answer  this  question  definitely  and  conclusively 
for  all  farmers  as  it  is  to  prescribe  that  corn  should 
be  planted  the  first  week  in  June  everywhere.  The 
best  depth  for  plowing  depends  upon  conditions; 
these  each  farmer  must  study  for  himself.  No 
general  statement  can  be  made  ;  "plow  deep"  is 
sound  advice  in  many  cases,  and  very  bad  advice 
in  others. 

The  depth  to  plow  should  be  governed  mainly 
by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
heavier  the  soil  the  deeper  it  should  be  plowed,  for 
heavy  soils  need  the  loosening,  draining  and  aerat- 
ing effect  of  deep  plowing.  Such  soils  are  com- 
monly plowed  from  seven  to  ten  inches  deep.  On 
the  contrary,  the  lighter  the  soils  the  more  shallow 
should  they  be  plowed,  since  deep  plowing  makes 
the  soil  looser,  and  it  is  already  too  loose  and 
leachy.  If,  however,  humus  is  being  plowed  under, 
as  manure  or  a  cover  crop,  the  plowing  can  be 
deeper.  Sandy  soils  are  commonly  plowed  four 
or  five  inches  deep.  If,  however,  it  is  desired  to 
form  an  artificial  hard-pan  on  such  soils  they  may 
be  plowed  deeper.  On  raw  soils  it  is  well  to  plow 
about  half  an  inch  deeper  each  year  until  a  depth 
of  nine  or  ten  inches  is  reached. 

The  depth  to  plow  should  be  influenced  by  the 
feeding  habit  of  the  crop  to  be  grown.  Are  its 
feeding  roots  mostly  in  the  first  foot  of  soil  or  in 
the  first  five  feet  ?  Plowing  for  fruit  trees  and  root 
crops  should  be  deeper,  as  a  rule,  than  for  other 
farm  crops. 

Plow  somewhat  deeper  in  midsummer  and  fall, 
when  the  soil  is  apt  to  be  dry,  than  in  spring  when 
the  soil  is  cold  and  wet.  In  the  humid  sections 
farm  manures  or  green  manures  plowed  under  at 
that  time  decay  quicker  near  tne  surface  than 


124  SOILS 

eight  or  nine  inches  deep.  If  the  soil  is  damp  and 
it  is  desired  to  dry  and  warm  it  for  an  early  plant- 
ing, say  of  corn,  it  should  be  plowed  more  shallow 
than  ordinarily.  This  is  not  advocating  shal- 
low ^plowing  for  heavy  lands  in  general,  but  stat- 
ing what  may  be  done  in  certain  cold,  wet  and  late 
seasons. 

Eight  inches  may  be  considered  deep  plowing 
for  many  soils ;  rarely  is  it  practicable  to  plow  more 
than  eleven  inches  deep.  Most  field  crops  feed 
much  more  deeply  than  is  commonly  realised. 
Corn,  parsnips  and  sweet  potato  roots  occupy 
the  ground  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet  and  may 
go  several  feet  deeper,  depending  upon  the  nature 
of  the  subsoil.  It  is  safe  to  say  that,  on  an  aver- 
age, the  roots  of  field  crops  forage  five  to  six  feet 
deep.  But  most  of  the  feeding  roots  are  in  the 
plowed  ground,  because  this  is  the  richest,  warmest 
and  the  oest  ventilated  part  of  the  soil.  Therefore, 
the  deeper  the  soil  is  plowed,  within  certain  limits, 
the  greater  will  be  the  productivity,  because  more 
of  this  congenial  pasturage  is  provided  for  the  roots. 

Subsoiling. — The  subsoil  sets  a  limit  to  the  depth 
at  which  certain  soils  can  be  plowed.  It  may  be 
yellow  or  of  a  different  nature  than  the  surface 
mould,  and  contain  a  large  amount  of  raw  plant 
food.  If  much  of  this  raw  soil  is  mixed  with  the 
surface  soil  the  productivity  of  the  land  is  apt  to  be 
seriously  reduced  for  a  number  of  years,  or  until 
weathering  has  acted  upon  the  subsoil  brought  to 
the  surface.  About  1850  there  was  a  widespread 
discussion  in  this  country  on  the  advantage  of 
deep  plowing.  It  led  to  the  introduction  of  an 
implement  with  two  plows  upon  one  beam;  a 
small  one  which  turned  a  furrow  three  or  four 
inches  deep  followed  by  a  larger  one  which  ran  six 


45.     AX  IDEAL  PLOW  FOR  ORDIXARY  WORK 

This  is  the  plow  used  in  Fig.  44.     Note  the  lines  of  the  mouldboard,  the  angle  of  the 
handles,  and  the  jointer,  beam  wheel,  and  clevis 


A  CHEAP  AXD  RATHER  INEFFECTIVE  WOODEN-BEAM  PLOW 

Compare  mouldboard  with  preceding  and  note  absence  of  overhang.     Too  shallow- 
working  for  any  work  but  furrowing  out  for  planting 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  125 

or  eight  inches  deeper,  turning  its  furrow-slice  upon 
that  of  the  smaller  plow.  These  plows  proved 
impracticable,  chiefly  because  they  left  the  raw 
subsoil  on  top  of  the  ground  and  buried  the  rich 
surface  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 

The  introduction  of  the  subsoil  plow,  a  little 
later,  remedied  this  fault.  This  follows  the  plow 
and  stirs  the  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  to  a 
depth  of  five  to  ten  inches,  but  does  not  bring  it  to 
the  surface.  There  are  two  types  of  subsoil  plows. 
One  is  shaped  something  like  a  harrow  tootn ;  the 
other  consists  of  a  wedge-like  shoe  on  the  lower 
end  of  the  bar.  There  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  concerning  the  value  of  the  subsoil  plow 
in  general  farming.  It  is  not  used  nearly  as  much 
as  it  was  fifteen  years  ago.  The  general  conclusion 
seems  to  be  that  it  is  01  service  only  on  the  heavier 
soils,  which  need  better  aeration  and  need  to  be 
deepened.  But  the  soil  that  is  loosened  by  the 
subsoil  plow  quickly  falls  back  and  becomes 
compact  again,  so  subsoiling  affords  only  tem- 
porary relief.  Moreover,  subsoiling  may  be  a 
positive  injury  to  some  soils  by  destroying  the 
earthworm  burrows  that  effectively  aerate  and 
drain  the  subsoil. 

The  lessened  appreciation  of  the  subsoil  plow 
in  recent  years  is  due  largely  to  the  more  general 
practice  of  under-drainage.  Under-drainage  loosens, 
deepens  and  aerates  the  soil  permanently  and  to  a 
much  greater  depth  than  subsoiling.  Subsoiling 
should  follow,  not  precede,  under-drainage.  It 
augments  every  good  effect  of  drainage.  At  present 
the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow  is  confined  mostly  to 
fairly  well-drained  lands  which  have  a  hard  and 
dry  subsoil;  and  for  breaking  up  a  hard-pan  that 
is  close  to  the  surface.  Subsoiling  is  usually  in- 


126  SOILS 

jurious  to  a  wet,  clayey  soil,  making  it  puddle.  It 
is  practised  chiefly  for  crops  that  nave  long  roots, 
notably  for  parsnips  and  carrots.  The  cost  of 
subsoiling  is  from  $1.50  to  $3.00  per  acre,  or  fully  as 
much  as  the  cost  of  plowing.  It  is  customary  to 
subsoil  about  every  third  or  fourth  year. 

Deeper  Plowing  Desirable. — The  probability  is 
that  tne  future  improvements  in  plows  will  be 
largely  along  the  line  of  increasing  the  width  and 
depth  of  the  furrow  without  adding  much  to  the 
draft.  The  farmers  of  a  century  hence  will  stir  the 
soil  deeper  than  we  do,  and  so  have  more  of  it 
directly  under  their  control.  But  many  farmers 
of  to-day  do  not  plow  nearly  so  deeply  as  they 
might  and  ought.  This  is  especially  true  in 
the  South,  where  the  one-negro-one-mule-one-plow 
combination  is  thought  to  be  the  best  solution  of 
the  problem.  One  mule  can  hardly  furnish  power 
to  turn  even  four  or  five  inches  of  soil.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  Southern  soils  are  clay,  especially 
in  Tennessee,  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
These  clayey  soils,  being  very  fine  grained,  absorb 
water  very  slowly.  Hence,  if  they  are  not  loosened 
and  deepened  by  deep  plowing  the  rains  quickly 
overflow  them  and  tne  surface  drainage  washes 
away  the  fine,  rich  soil  and  the  fertility  of  the  land 
with  it.  There  are  other  causes  of  this  washing 
(see  Chapter  XI),  but  shallow  plowing  is  now  and 
has  long  been  one  of  the  principal  causes. 

Farmers  in  other  parts  of  the  country  are  losing 
nearly  as  much  by  persisting  in  the  old-time  shal- 
low plowing  of  four  or  five  inches,  when  they  might 
easily  double  the  feeding  pasturage  of  their  crops. 
Many  of  the  farmers  of  the  western  prairies,  in 
Nebraska,  Dakota  and  contiguous  states,  plow  very 
shallow.  Sometimes  the  land  is  plowed  only  three 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  127 

to  four  inches  deep — sometimes  it  is  not  plowed 
at  all  for  a  year  or  two,  the  surface  being  simply 
scratched  sufficiently  to  cover  the  seeds.  When 
the  tough  prairie  sod  was  first  broken  in  the  pioneer 
days,  about  seventy-five  years  ago,  it  was  necessary 
to  plow  very  shallow.  The  great  "prairie  breaker" 
of  those  days  had  a  beam  nine  to  ten  feet  long, 
was  pulled  by  eight  to  twelve  yoke  of  oxen,  and 
turned  a  furrow  18  inches  to  two  feet  wide  and  not 
more  than  2  or  3  inches  deep.  This  served  its 
purpose  admirably,  but  as  soon  as  the  native 
grasses  were  subdued  it  was  seen  that  deeper  work- 
ing plows  were  needed.  Shallow- working  "sod 
plows"  are  still  used  for  subduing  sod.  Prairie 
soils  are  so  open  in  texture  and  rich  to  such  a  depth 
that  deep  plowing  does  not  give  the  beneficial 
results  that  it  does  in  many  other  parts  of  the 
country.  But  it  is  quite  certain  that  in  the  long 
run  it  pays  to  plow  these  soils  deeper  than  the  mere 
surface  scratching  that  is  now  given  to  many  of 
them. 

DRAFT   IN    PLOWING 

The  power  that  it  takes  to  plow,  and  the  amount 
of  draft  required,  have  an  important  influence  on 
the  depth  of  plowing  and  the  amount  of  pulverisa- 
tion accomplished.  Experiments  by  Anderson 
showed  that  it  takes  55  per  cent,  of  the  total  draft 
in  plowing  to  cut  the  furrow  slice,  and  12  per  cent. 
to  turn  it ;  the  33  per  cent,  remaining  is  used  in  the 
friction  of  the  sole  and  the  landslide.  An  old  share 
point  makes  plowing  as  hard  work  for  three  horses 
as  a  new  point  does  for  two.  The  use  of  a  bold 
mouldboard  increases  the  draft  very  slightly,  not 
over  2  or  3  per  cent,  more  than  when  a  straighter 
mouldboard  is  used.  This  is  a  small  price  to  pay 


128  SOILS 

for  the  much  greater  efficiency  of  the  bold  mould- 
board. 

A  plow  not  adjusted  properly  may  require 
50  per  cent,  more  energy  to  move  it.  The 
investigation  of  Sanborn,  in  1888,  showed  that  the 
use  of  a  coulter  or  jointer  increases  the  draft  and 
the  use  of  a  beam  wheel  decreases  the  draft.  He 
also  found  that  the  deeper  a  plow  works,  the  less 
draft  it  requires  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
furrow-slice.  That  is,  it  does  not  take  twice  as 
much  power  to  turn  a  furrow  8  inches  deep  as  to 
turn  one  4  inches  deep,  but  less  than  this — about 
10  per  cent,  for  each  additional  inch  in  depth, 
according  to  results  at  the  Utica  Plow  Trial  in 
1867.  Likewise  the  wider  the  furrow  the  less 
power  is  required  in  proportion  to  the  soil  turned. 
With  a  bold  mouldboard  a  furrow  may  be  turned 
two  or  three  times  as  wide  as  it  is  deep;  if  the 
mouldboard  is  less  overhanging  it  is  necessary  to 
turn  narrow  furrows  in  order  to  leave  the  soil  in 
good  shape. 

Heavy  Teams  Do  Better  Work. — It  is  a  mistake 
to  plow  with  a  light  team,  and  nothing  but  the 
most  shallow  and  least  efficient  plowing  can  be 
done  with  a  single  horse  or  mule.  A  light  draft 
not  only  makes  the  plowing  more  shallow  than 
if  a  heavy  team  were  attached  to  the  same  plow, 
but  the  plow  works  in  a  jerky  manner,  and  it  is 
harder  for  both  team  and  man.  Roberts  says: 
"If  the  little  plow  turning  a  furrow  only  nine 
or  ten  inches  in  width  and  six  inches  deep  could  be 
exchanged  for  a  plow  capable  of  handling  a  furrow 
sixteen  inches  wide  and  ten  inches  deep;  and  the 
two  900  pound  horses  replaced  by  three  of  1,200 
each,  the  necessity  for  subsoiling  would  be  obviated 
and  the  cost  of  plowing  diminished  rather  than 


47.     SHIFTLESS  PLOWING  IN  NORTH  FLORIDA 

The  land  is  plowed  only  where  the  rows  of  the  crop  are  to  go;  after  the  crop  is  growing 
the  farmer  "breaks  out  the  middles" 


48.     A  TURNING  UNDER  THICK  HERBAGE  WITH  THE  AID  OF  A  CHAIN 

One  end  is  fastened  to  the  beam,  the  other  to  the  doubletree 


•' 


^e-^ 

j&dl^ssi 

I^sSllfes. 

''•*<X  -'  t  ^/.-V*-;.    •    MiHt  •/*•  *  >      "--'Vxi 

^  y. .%  T\  - .  •-    x  %  •*-•"  *-!S* 


mx^: 


49.     THE  APPEARAXCE  OF  LAND  AFTER  FALL  PLOWING 
Soils  that  ''puddle"  should  not  be  plowed  in  the  fall 


50.     THE  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  SAME  LAND  THE  FOLLOWING  SPRING 

The  soil  has  been  weathered  and  the  texture  improved.     Fall  plowing 
also  promotes  earliness 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  129 

increased,  wherever  the  fields  are  large  and  fairly 
level.  The  larger  team  could  get  through  three 
acres  while  the  smaller  is  getting  through  two; 
thus,  by  adding  one-half  more  to  the  daily  cost  of 
the  team,  without  any  increased  expense  for  plow- 
man, half  as  many  acres  again  will  be  turned,  and 
much  better." 

Horses  that  walk  fast  are  better  than  a  slow 
team,  not  only  because  they  cover  more  ground, 
but  also  because  they  do  better  work;  the  faster  the 
plow  moves,  provided  there  are  no  obstructions, 
the  better  is  the  soil  pulverised.  Large  level  fields 
are  plowed  better  and  quicker  with  a  two  or  a  three 
shore  gang  plow  and  four  to  six  horses  than  if  the 
power  is  divided  into  three  teams  pulling  three  single 
plows;  and  the  saving  of  plowmen  is  worth  con- 
sidering in  these  times  when  farm  help  is  scarce. 
A  still  greater  concentration  of  power  is  commonly 
practised  in  the  West,  where  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  see  fifteen  or  twenty  horses  pulling  a  single  gang 
plow.  When  two  or  more  teams  are  used  on  one 
plow  the  doubletrees  of  the  forward  teams  are 
chained  to  the  ring  of  the  neck-yoke  of  the  beam 
team. 

The  Power  for  Plowing. — Next  to  the  style  of 
plow,  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  motive  power  is 
the  chief  factor  that  controls  the  depth  and  thor- 
oughness of  plowing.  In  America  the  ox,  horse 
and  mule  are  used  almost  exclusively,  being  the 
cheapest.  Traction  engines  are  quite  frequently 
used  in  the  West,  especially  in  the  arid  and  semi- 
arid  regions.  In  many  cases  steam  power  has  not 
been  as  satisfactory  as  horse  power,  because  it 
costs  more — horse  flesh  is  cheap  in  this  country. 
In  Europe,  where  horses  are  dearer  and  machinery 
cheaper,  steam  power  is  often  more  practicable. 


130  SOILS 

Either  a  traction  engine  or  a  stationary  engine  is 
used.  The  former  is  run  back  and  forth  across  the 
field  dragging  behind  it  a  gang  plow  with  six  to 
twelve  plows.  A  25 -horse-power  engine  is  commonly 
used.  A  steam  plow  outfit  complete  costs  from 
$2,000  to  $4,000.  It  is  run  by  two  men  and  plow- 
ing usually  costs  about  50  cents  an  acre  as  against 
75  cents  to  $1  by  team.  The  stationary  engine 
runs  the  gang  plow  by  means  of  wire  cables.  The 
traction  engine  has  been  found  more  practicable 
in  this  country  than  the  stationary  engine,  but  the 
latter  is  used  more  commonly  in  Europe.  There, 
too,  electricity  is  used  as  a  power  for  plowing. 
Some  German  fields  are  plowed  with  power  se- 
cured from  an  electric  trolley  which  is  stretched 
above  the  field,  giving,  it  is  claimed,  a  cheaper 
and  more  satisfactory  power  than  steam. 

Steam,  electricity  or  any  other  machinery  power 
will  not  become  a  very  important  feature  in  Amer- 
ican plowing  for  many  years  to  come,  except 
in  the  West.  It  is  solely  a  question  of  economics— 
what  kind  of  power  is  cheapest.  Horses  and 
mules  are  the  cheapest  power  at  present  on  the 
majority  of  American  farms.  We  would  naturally 
expect  that  machine  power  will  first  become 
practicable  in  this  country  where  farming  is  done 
on  a  very  large  scale,  and  where  the  land  is  suffi- 
ciently level  to  make  machine  plowing  feasible. 
The  great  farms  of  the  western  plains  furnish  these 
conditions  and  here  steam  plows  are  becoming 
common.  However,  in  view  of  the  recent  astonish- 
ing developments  in  farm  machinery,  it  would  not 
be  surprising  to  see  within  a  quarter  of  a  century 
some  kind  of  a  small  power  plow  adapted  for  the 
farmer  who  tills  less  tnan  a  mmdred  acres.  One 
can  even  imagine  the  small  farmer  of  fifty  years 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  131 

hence  riding  over  his  field  in  a  sort  of  automobile 
plow  and  handling  it  with  brake  and  lever.  There 
nave  been  more  remarkable  improvements  than 
this  within  a  generation.  But  certain  New  England 
fields,  at  any  rate,  will  never  be  plowed  witn  an 
automobile  plow  unless  the  rocks  in  it  weather 
with  remarkable  rapidity  during  the  next  few 
decades.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  a  willing  team 
of  Clyde  or  Percheron  horses  and  a  skilful  man 
guiding  the  handles  of  a  good  walking  plow,  will 
be,  for  many  years,  the  cheapest  and  most  effective 
method  of  getting  the  soil  ready  for  a  crop  on  90 
per  cent,  of  American  farms. 

THE    ESSENTIALS    OF   A   GOOD    PLOW 

There  are  many  styles  and  makes  of  plows,  each 
different  from  the  others  in  some  respect.  The 
kind  of  plow  that  should  be  bought  depends  upon 
the  use  for  it  and  upon  the  way  it  is  built.  Do  not 
buy  a  plow  by  its  name  or  trie  reputation  of  the 
firm,  any  more  than  you  would  buy  fertiliser  by 
brand  or  a  cow  by  pedigree.  The  essential  parts 
of  a  good  plow  are  briefly  discussed  below: 

The  Beam.  This  may  be  of  iron,  steel  or  wood. 
A  wooden  beam  is  cheaper  and  lighter  than  a 
metal  beam;  for  these  reasons  a  majority  of  the 
plows  now  found  on  farms  have  wooden  beams. 
Walnut  and  ash  make  the  strongest  plow  beams. 
Steel  beams,  which  are  much  fighter  than  iron 
beams,  are  rapidly  replacing  wooden  beams,  being 
much  stronger. 

The  Moutdboard  is  the  most  important  part  of  a 
plow;  its  shape  should  be  studied  carefully  by  a 
plow  buyer,  so  as  to  note  how  it  will  lift,  turn  and 
pulverise  the  soil.  The  general  shape  of  the 


132  SOILS 

mouldboard  should  be  spiral.  This  most  important 
principle  in  the  construction  of  the  mouldboard  was 
first  stated  clearly  in  1839  by  two  plow  makers, 
Samuel  Witherow  and  David  P.ierce.  "The  main 
object  is  to  pulverise  the  soil,  and  the  only  way  in 
which  it  can  be  effected  is  by  bending  a  furrow-slice 
on  a  curved  surface  forward  so  that  it  shall  be 
twisted,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  screw." 
The  more  nearly  spiral  a  mouldboard  is,  the  more 
completely  will  the  soil  be  inverted,  but  it  is  not 
pulverised  to  any  extent. 

The  extent  to  which  the  mouldboard  pulverises 
depends  mostly  on  the  steepness  of  its  upward  curve 
and  the  abruptness  of  its  outward  curve;  that  is, 
the  upper  or  rear  end  is  curved  more  sharply  than 
thelowerorforwardend.  This  "bold  mouldboard," 
as  it  is  called,  draws  slightly  harder  and  clogs  a 
little  more  than  those  having  a  more  moderate  curve, 
but  its  much  greater  effectiveness  in  pulverising  the 
soil  more  than  compensates  for  these  objections. 
The  abrupt  mouldboard  is  adapted  for  nearly  all 
plowing,  except  for  the  fall  plowing  of  clayey  soils 
and  for  breaking  new  land,  when  a  plow  having  a 
long  and  gradually  sloping  mouldboard  is  more 
effective. 

The  Coulter,  or  cutter,  may  be  in  the  form  of  a 
knife  or  a  rolling  disk.  The  disk  coulter  is  usually 
more  useful  than  the  knife  coulter,  which  clogs 
easily.  It  is  especiallv  serviceable  for  plowing 
under  litter,  as  cornstalks  and  straw,  which  it  rolls 
down  and  cuts.  The  jointer,  however,  is  now  used 
more  for  this  purpose. 

The  Jointer,  or  skim  coulter,  is  a  most  service- 
able attachment,  especially  when  stubble,  grass  or 
manure  are  to  be  turned  under.  When  herbage 
is  plowed  under  without  a  jointer  there  is  likely  to 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  133 

be  a  line  of  it  left  between  the  furrows.  It  skims  a 
shallow  furrow  and  deposits  the  herbage  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  where  it  is  covered  by  the 
furrow-slice  of  the  mouldboard.  It  also  pulverises 
the  soil,  if  set  deep  enough  to  keep  the  furrow-slice 
from  turning  too  flat.  Both  coulter  and  jointer 
increase  the  draft  and  should  be  kept  sharp. 

The  Beam  Wheel,  or  truck,  whicn  is  attached  to 
the  end  of  the  beam,  is  useful  simply  for  steadying 
the  plow.  •  It  should  not  be  used  to  regulate  the 
deptn  of  the  furrow,  for  if  it  is  set  low  in  order  to 
make  the  plow  turn  a  shallow  furrow,  it  acts  as  a 
brake.  If  it  is  used  merely  to  make  the  plow  run 
more  steady  by  reducing  the  effect  of  the  motion  of 
the  horses,  whiffletrees  and  eveners,  it  reduces  the 
draft  to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  Share,  or  plow-point,  cuts  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow-slice  from  the  land.  It  should  be  kept 
sharp,  especially  if  grass  or  other  roots  are  to  be 
cut.  The  draft  of  a  plow  with  a  dull  share  is  about 
7  per  cent,  greater  than  the  draft  of  a  plow  with  a 
sharp  share.  Shares  may  be  renewed  or  sharpened. 

The  Clevis,  or  bridle,  is  the  metal  attachment  at 
the  end  of  the  beam  used  to  regulate  the  depth  and 
width  of  the  furrows.  The  hitch  on  the  clevis  is 
raised  to  increase  and  lowered  to  decrease  the 
depth;  the  clevis  is  swung  to  the  right  to  increase 
width  and  swung  to  the  left  to  reduce  it.  The 
clevis  on  swivel  plows  is  changed  by  a  lever  from 
the  handle.  With  some  plows  the  change  is  ef- 
fected by  moving  the  beam  at  the  handles.  Some 
plows  have  only  notches  in  the  clevis  for  holding 
the  draft  ring.  There  is  a  double  clevis  in  use. 

In  brief,  the  characteristics  of  a  good  plow  are 
these :  It  should  be  as  light  as  is  consistent  with  de- 
sired strength.  It  should  run  steadily  and  have 


134  SOILS 

as  light  a  draft  as  possible.     It  should  pulverise 
the  soil  as  well  as  turn  it. 

WHEN   TO    PLOW 

Most  plowing  is  done  either  in  early  spring,  just 
before  the  planting  of  the  crop,  or  late  in  the  fall. 
The  chief  factor  that  decides  this  question  is  that 
of  convenience.  The  best  time  to  plow,  however, 
depends  upon  the  climate,  the  soil  and  the  crop, 
as  well  as  upon  the  convenience  of  the  farmer. 
It  is  not  necessarily  the  same  for  adjacent  farms. 

Fall  Plowing. — Land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  chiefly 
in  two  cases ;  to  improve  its  texture  and  to  prepare 
it  for  fall  seeding.  Clayey  soils,  if  not  liable  to 
puddle,  are  benefited  most  because  it  exposes  them 
to  weathering.  Sandy  soils  may  be  greatly  in- 
jured by  fall  plowing,  because  they  are  already  too 
leachy.  Where  there  is  danger  of  washing  from 
plowing  clayey  soils  in  the  fall  Roberts  recom- 
mends that  single  furrows  be  drawn  across  the 
field  about  four  or  five  feet  apart;  as,  for  example, 
between  rows  of  corn.  These  improve  the  soil  by 
weathering,  make  it  earlier  and  it  does  not  run 
together  or  puddle.  These  furrows  are  easily 
levelled  in  spring  with  a  scantling  chained  cross- 
wise under  the  front  end  of  the  harrow,  and  driven 
lengthwise  of  the  furrow.  This  makes  more  work, 
but  it  pays  on  cold,  wet  clays.  It  should  never  be 
practised  on  any  soils  that  wash  badly  during  the 
winter. 

Fall  plowing  is  practised  more  in  growing  wheat 
and  otner  cereals,  and  in  market  gardening,  than 
for  other  crops.  It  is  an  almost  universal  practice 
in  many  sections  of  the  West.  It  should  be  done 
early,  when  the  ground  is  fairly  dry.  An  incidental 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  135 

advantage  of  fall  plowing,  in  some  cases,  is  that  it 
destroys  wire-worms.  Land  for  fall  seeding  should 
be  plowed,  if  possible,  two  or  three  weeks  before 
sowing.  Lap-furrow  plowing  is  preferable.  Land 
plowed  in  the  fall  may  be  benefited  by  being  plowed 
again  in  the  spring  before  being  seeded ;  but  usually 
a  good  disking  is  sufficient. 

The  Spring  Plowing. — Spring  plowing  should 
be  done  early,  before  the  days  when  a  hot  sun  and 
drying  wind  suck  from  the  unplowed  soil  much  of 
the  water  that  the  crop  could  use  to  great  advan- 
tage. A  soil  may  lose  as  much  as  twenty  tons  of 
water  per  acre  weeklv  by  being  left  unplowed  late 
into  the  spring.  This  is  equal  to  1.75  inches  of 
rainfall.  Early  plowing  also  dries  and  warms  the 
surface  soil  so  that  it  may  be  planted  early.  Further- 
more, the  earlier  soil  is  plowed,  the  more  spring 
rain  it  catches.  If  the  land  is  covered  with  a  catch 
crop  there  are  additional  reasons  for  plowing  it 
early;  the  herbage  will  decay  better,  and  if  the 
catch  crop  is  one  that  lives  over  the  winter,  as  rye, 
it  will  be  prevented  from  reducing  the  supply  of 
water  in  the  soil  by  its  spring  growth.  The  popular 
rule  "Plow  as  early  in  spring  as  the  ground  works 
up  mellow'*  epitomises  the  experience  of  many 
generations  of  farmers. 

The  exact  time  to  plow  in  spring  depends  mostly 
on  the  wetness  of  the  soil.  If  the  soil  is  light  and 
porous  it  may  be  plowed,  oftentimes,  two  or  three 
weeks  earlier  than  heavy  soil  on  the  same  farm. 
Not  till  the  soil  crumbles  readily  when  turned  up 
in  the  furrow-slice  is  it  in  the  best  condition  for 
plowing.  If  it  is  turned  over  in  clods  there  will 
be  trouble.  The  texture  of  a  clayey  soil  may  be 
nearly  ruined  by  plowing  it  once  or  twice  when  it 
is  wet;  the  soil  is  thrown  into  great  clods  which 


136  SOILS 

it  may  take  several  years  to  mellow.  There  is 
always  a  tendency  to  plow  heavy  soils  too  early, 
when  they  are  wet,  since  early  plowing  means  so 
much  to  the  success  of  the  grains  which  thrive 
best  upon  these  soils.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
equally  unprofitable  to  plow  when  the  soil  is  very 
dry,  as  such  a  soil  is  likely  to  be  puddled  by  rains 
when  the  lumps  have  been  pulverised  by  the 
harrow.  In  both  fall  and  spring  plowing  it  is  al- 
ways better  to  plow  a  week  or  more  before  seeding 
so  as  to  allow  the  loose  soil  to  settle,  thus  increasing 
its  ability  to  supply  film  water  to  the  seed. 

WHEN    PLOWING   IS    DISPENSED    WITH 

In  a  few  sections  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
Southeastern  States,  some  farmers  have  a  way  of 
plowing  only  one  or  more  furrows  where  each  row 
is  to  be.  The  crop  is  then  planted  and  the  ground 
between  the  rows  is  plowed  later.  This  "  breaking 
out  the  middles"  is  a  back-handed  way  of 
plowing,  for  the  soil  cannot  be  plowed  and  fitted 
nearly  as  conveniently  and  thoroughly  after  the 
crop  is  started  as  when  the  land  is  unoccupied. 
The  only  excuse  for  this  practice  is  a  rush  of  work 
at  planting  time,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  even  this 
ought  to  be  valid. 

There  are  occasions  when  it  is  best  not  to  plow 
at  all.  If  a  mellow  seed  bed  can  be  prepared  readi- 
ly without  plowing,  and  the  surface  soil  is  plenty 
rich  enough,  the  land  may  be  simply  harrowed 
deeply  in  the  spring  and  sown  to  the  grains,  which 
prefer  a  compact  soil  beneath  the  surface.  Farmers 
m  the  prairie  states  sometimes  follow  this  plan. 
Sometimes  land  from  which  beans  or  other  crops 
have  been  removed  is  harrowed  in  preparation  for 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  137 

fall  seeding  of  grain.  These  cases,  however,  are 
very  rare,  as  compared  with  the  almost  universal 
experience  that  thorough  plowing  is  the  best  prep- 
aration of  a  seed  bed. 

USEFULNESS    OF   THE    DIFFERENT   KINDS 
OF    PLOWS 

There  are  a  number  of  distinct  types  of  plows, 
each  of  which  is  adapted  for  certain  conditions. 
Furthermore,  there  are  many  makes  or  brands  of 
each  class  of  plows  and  these  differ  widely  in 
construction  and  in  value.  The  merits  of  the  five 
most  important  classes  of  plows — landslide,  swivel, 
sulky,  disk  and  gang — will  be  discussed  briefly. 
When  it  comes  to  choosing  between  the  different 
makes  of  the  same  type  of  plow,  the  buyer  must 
scrutinise  the  construction  of  each,  especially  the 
mouldboard,  as  advised  in  preceding  paragraphs. 

The  Landside  Plow  is  the  oldest  and  most  com- 
mon type  of  plow.  Probably  five-sixths  of  all  the 
plows  used  in  the  country  belong  to  this  class.  It 
turns  a  furrow  only  in  one  direction ,  usually  to  the 
right;  and  more  perfectly  than  swivel  plows,  which 
turn  the  furrow  in  either  direction.  It  leaves  a 
dead-furrow,  which  is  no  disadvantage  on  most 
land,  as  it  assists  in  drainage. 

The  Swivel  Plow  is  constructed  so  that  a  furrow 
may  be  turned  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  thus  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  plow  a  field  so  that  all  the  furrows 
are  turned  one  way  and  no  dead-furrows  are  left. 
It  is  especially  adapted  for  plowing  hillsides,  be- 
cause it  leaves  no  dead-furrow  to  collect  water.  For 
this  reason  it  is  sometimes  called  the  hillside  plow. 
For  general  purposes,  however,  it  is  not  usually 
considered  quite  as  efficient  as  a  landside  plow. 


138  SOILS 

The  Sulky  Plow  is  a  plow  mounted  on  wheels, 
with  provision  for  the  driver  to  ride  and  to  con- 
trol it  with  a  lever.  The  plow  itself  may  be  a 
swivel,  which  is  turned  at  the  end  of  each  furrow ; 
or  there  may  be  two  landside  plows,  one  turning 
the  furrow-slice  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the 
left,  these  being  used  alternately  so  that  the  plow- 
ing is  back  and  forth,  not  around  the  field,  and  no 
dead-furrows  are  left.  The  landside  construction 
is  usually  considered  somewhat  superior  to  the 
swivel  construction  in  sulky  plows. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  draft  of  a  sulky 
plow  is  no  greater  than  the  draft  of  a  landside  plow 
doing  the  same  amount  and  quality  of  work.  A 
large  part  of  the  weight  of  the  plow  falls  upon  the 
axles,  so  that  the  friction  on  the  sole  of  the  plow  is 
greatly  relieved.  A  sulky  plow  weighing  three  or 
four  times  as  much  as  a  landside  plow  does  not 
pull  any  harder,  even  with  a  man  mounted  upon  it. 
If  the  soil  is  soft,  so  that  the  sulky  wheels  sink  into 
it  or  clog,  the  draft  is  increased.  Two  heavy 
horses  can  pull  it,  but  three  are  better.  A  good 
sulky  plow,  properly  adjusted,  should  turn  as  even 
and  deep  a  furrow  as  a  landside  plow,  and  some- 
what wider.  If  the  soil  is  hard  or  rooty,  it  keeps 
in  the  ground  better  than  a  landside  plow.  This 
type  of  plow  is  of  service  only  on  comparatively 
level  land;  it  is  not  practicable  on  hilly  and  rocky 
land.  The  mechanism  of  a  sulky  plow  is  not 
difficult  to  operate  nor  does  it  get  out  of  order 
easily.  Wherever  it  can  be  used  to  advantage  the 
sulky  plow  saves  the  time  and  strength  of  the  plow- 
man ;  it  is  being  used  more  every  year  by  American 
farmers. 

The  Gang  Plow  differs  from  the  sulky  plow 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  it  turns  more  than  one  furrow 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  139 

at  a  time.  From  two  to  twelve  plows  are  mounted 
upon  a  frame,  all  turning  furrows  the  same  way, 
one  following  another.  The  sulky  gang  plow  pro- 
vides a  seat  for  a  man;  others  have  handles,  like 
a  landside  plow,  and  are  guided  by  the  plowman. 
The  latter  commonly  have  two  to  four  plows,  run 
on  low  wheels.  Some  of  the  largest  gang  plows 
are  reversible,  like  a  sulky  plow;  they  have  two 
gangs,  one  right  hand  and  one  left  hand. 

Gang  plows  are  practicable  only  where  there  is 
a  large  area  of  fairly  level  land  to  be  plowed.  In 
this  country  they  are  used  chiefly  for  plowing  in 
the  West.  The  chief  saving  that  they  effect  is  in 
decreasing  the  number  of  plowmen  and  in  getting 
a  larger  area  plowed  when  the  weather  and  soil 
are  suitable,  rower  is  furnished  by  horses,  mules, 
or  steam,  principally  by  horses  but  frequently 
by  steam  in  this  country.  A  steam  gang  plow, 
combined  with  a  seeder  and  harrow  has  reduced  the 
time  required  for  manual  labour  in  plowing,  seeding 
and  harrowing,  in  the  production  of  a  bushel  of 
wheat,  from  38.8  minutes  in  1830  to  2.2  minutes  at 
the  present  time ;  and  the  cost  of  human  and  animal 
labour  for  the  same  operations,  from  four  cents  to 
one  cent  per  bushel.  It  takes  from  six  to  eight 
horses  to  handle  a  four-furrow  gang  plow.  When 
adjusted  right  a  gang  plow  should  do  as  good  work 
as  a  sulky  or  landside  plow.  It  is  probable  that 
they  will  be  used  to  an  increasing  extent  in  this 
country,  especially  in  the  West ;  but  the  sulky  plow 

v  JL  v  v       L 

is  better  adapted  for  average  conditions  in  the 
East. 

Disk  Plow. — This  implement  is  beginning  to  be 
used  quite  extensively  in  arid  and  semi-arid  farming. 
It  consists  of  a  tempered  steel  disk,  either  single 
or  in  gangs  of  two  or  more,  which  is  25  to  30  inches 


140  SOILS 

in  diameter  and  set  at  an  angle  to  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  so  as  to  invert  and  pulverise  it.  The  disk 
is  kept  from  clogging  by  an  adjustable  scraper. 
It  is  mounted  on  wheels  and  provided  with  levers, 
as  in  a  sulky  plow.  The  disk  plow  is  commonly 
used  with  steam  power.  It  is  especially  valuable 
for  hard,  sticky  soils,  and  has  been  found  most 
practicable  in  "dry  farming"  in  the  West.  It 
does  not  appear  that  it  will  supplant  the  mouldboard 
plow  in  the  East,  but  it  can  be  used  to  advantage 
in  humid  regions  for  breaking  up  the  "plow  bed" 
or  "plow  sole"  formed  by  plowing  heavy  land 
with  a  mouldboard  plow  at  the  same  depth  for 
several  years. 

ADJUSTING   THE    PLOW   IN   THE    FIELD 

A  good  plow,  handled  or  adjusted  improperly, 
is  no  better  than  a  poor  tool.  The  same  implement 
can  do  first-class  plowing  and  very  poor  plowing, 
according  to  the  skill  of  the  man  who  holds  it. 
When  a  plow  is  taken  to  the  field  the  first  thing  to 
do  is  to  adjust  it  properly — the  adjustment  varies 
with  the  team,  the  type  of  soil  and  the  object  sought. 
It  pays  to  spend  some  little  time  in  getting  a  plow 
adjusted  rignt. 

Professor  W.  P.  Brooks  gives  the  novice  at 
plowing  some  excellent  suggestions  on  this  sub- 
ject; they  are  here  condensed,  and  slightly  modi- 
fied: Hitch  the  team  as  close  to  the  plow  as  pos- 
sible and  hitch  to  the  lowest  hole  in  the  clevis. 
Start  the  plow  and  note  whether  the  furrow  is 
sufficiently  deep;  if  not,  hitch  higher  one  hole  at 
a  time  until  the  plow  cuts  at  the  right  depth.  If 
the  furrow-slice  is  turned  over  flat,  and  a  lap  or 
rolling  furrow  is  desired,  it  may  be  because  the 


METHODS  OF  PLOWING  141 

furrow  is  too  wide  in  proportion  to  its  depth;  to 
correct  this,  the  clevis  must  be  moved  to  the  left. 
If  the  furrow  stands  too  nearly  on  edge  it  is  narrow 
in  proportion  to  its  depth;  move  the  clevis  to  the 
right.  A  plow  that  is  properly  adjusted  should 
run  in  the  soil  for  some  distance  without  being 
held,  cutting  a  furrow  of  even  depth  and  width, 
provided  the  soil  is  free  from  stones  and  other 
obstructions.  If  it  will  not  do  this  either  the  plow 
is  a  poor  one,  or,  what  is  more  likely,  it  is  not  cor- 
rectly set  up  or  adjusted.  When  it  runs  all  right, 
lower  the  beam  wheel  until  it  just  touches  the  sur- 
face. Thus  adjusted  the  plow  will  do  its  best 
work  as  easily  as  it  can  be  made  to  run. 


E 


CHAPTER  VII 

HARROWING   AND   CULTIVATING 

VEN  the  best  plowing  is  but  the  beginning 
of  good  tillage.  Unless  followed  by  thor- 
ough harrowing  and,  for  crops  planted  in 
in  rows  or  drills,  by  thorough  cultivation,  the  har- 
vest is  likely  to  suffer.  The  necessary  tillage  sub- 
sequent to  plowing  is  of  two  kinds.  The  first  is 
fitting  the  land  to  receive  the  seed,  by  harrowing, 
rolling,  planking,  brushing,  etc.  This  tillage  be- 
fore the  crop  is  planted,  together  with  plowing  itself, 
is  sometimes  called  "the  tillage  of  preparation." 
After  the  crop  is  planted  the  only  kind  of  tillage 
needed  is  cultivating,  called  "the  tillage  of  con- 
servation," because  its  chief  function  is  to  save,  or 
conserve,  the  soil  water.  This  distinction  is  made 
to  emphasise  one  very  important  fact;  that  if  the 
tillage  of  preparation  is  judicious  and  thorough, 
the  tillage  of  conservation  will  be  easy  and  effec- 
tive. The  best  cultivating  cannot  atone  for  hasty 
and  imperfect  harrowing.  Many  of  the  tools  used 
for  harrowing  are  equally  valuable,  in  a  modified 
form,  for  cultivating,  since  the  main  object  of  both 
is  the  same — to  stir  and  fine  the  surface  soil. 


OBJECTS    OF    HARROWING 


The  plow  leaves  the  soil  in  a  rough  condition, 
too  rough  and  hard,  in  most  cases,  for  planting. 
Some  light  sandy  soils  are  so  completely 
pulverised  and  levelled  by  good  plowing  that 

142 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       143 

they  are  sometimes  seeded  without  being  har- 
rowed, but  this  practice  is  rarely  profitable. 
The  plowed  ground  must  be  loosened  and  pul- 
verised so  that  the  seeds  will  touch  moist  grains  of 
soil  on  all  sides,  instead  of  lying  between  clods  and 
lumps.  The  chief  object  of  harrowing,  then,  is  to 
make  a  fine  and  mellow  seed-bed.  In  so  doing  it 
increases  fertility,  prevents  the  evaporation  of  soil 
water,  makes  the  soil  warmer  and  accomplishes 
all  the  other  benefits  of  tillage.  That  the  harrow 
teeth  fertilise  and  water  the  soil  as  well  as  fine  it, 
is  a  figure  of  speech  that  is  based  upon  realities  in 
the  field.  Harrowing  may  also  be  a  means  of 
covering  the  seed  and  of  killing  weeds. 

Better  Harrowing  Needed. — The  necessity  for 
harrowing  more  thoroughly  than  is  commonly 
done  needs  to  be  repeated  and  reemphasised. 
Some  farmers  are  content  with  one  or  two  liar- 
rowings,  or  merely  enough  to  break  up  the  largest 
lumps  and  enable  the  seeds  to  germinate.  But 
that  is  not  enough.  We  harrow  to  increase  the 
feeding  area  of  the  roots  all  through  the  season  by 

fiving  them  finely  divided  soil  in  which  to  spread. 
Ve  harrow  to  put  the  soil  in  the  best  possible  con- 
dition to  catch  and  hold  the  rains.  We  harrow  to 
warm  the  soil,  to  aerate  it  and  to  promote  the 
activity  of  the  germ  life  that  is  so  essential  to  its 
fertility.  This  means  that  the  ground  should  be 
gone  over  more  than  is  necessary  to  merely  break 
up  the  lumps  so  that  the  seeds  will  germinate.  It 
means  harrowing  and  cross-harrowing,  three  times, 
four  times,  six  times  if  necessary ;  or  until  all  of  the 
upper  four  or  five  inches  of  soil  upturned  by  the 
plow  has  been  made  as  nearly  like  an  onion 
bed  in  mellowness  as  the  texture  of  the  soil  will 
permit. 


144  SOILS 

It  does  not  pay  to  skimp  harrowing  in  the  rush 
of  the  busiest  season  of  the  farmers'  busy  year.  A 
farmer  once  told  me  that  every  time  he  went  over 
a  certain  piece  of  land  with  his  cutaway  harrow,  in 
preparing  it  for  corn,  he  received  more  tnan  seventy- 
nve  cents  an  hour  for  the  work  when  the  ears  were 
bushelled.  Of  course  there  is  a  limit,  for  every 
soil,  to  the  number  of  times  that  it  will  pay  to 
harrow  it.  Eight  harrowings  might  give  a  larger 
crop  than  three  harrowings,  but  would  the  increase 
be  enough  to  justify  the  expenditure  ?  It  is  worth 
while  for  every  farmer  to  find  the  point  where  better 
tillage  ceases  to  be  profitable  on  his  soil.  When  he 
ascertains  this  he  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  far 
this  limit  is  beyond  the  common  practice  of  the 
neighbourhood. 

KINDS    OF   HARROWS   AND    USEFULNESS  OF    EACH 

Harrowing  tools  are  of  innumerable  patterns. 
Most  any  ingenious  farmer  can  make  a  harrow  that 
will  do  good  work.  There  used  to  be  a  great 
many  home-made  harrows  and  cultivators,  but 
now  the  patent  implements  are  so  reasonable 
in  price  and  superior  in  efficiency  that  it 
scarcely  pays  to  get  one  made  by  the  local 
blacksmith. 

All  harrows  and  cultivators  are  of  four  general 
types.  The  first  class,  represented  by  the  spike- 
tooth  harrow,  press  the  soil  down  while  pulver- 
ising it.  The  second  class,  represented  by  the 
spring-tooth  harrow,  lift  the  soil  while  pulverising 
it.  The  third  class,  represented  by  the  Acme 
harrow,  slice  the  soil  and  lift  and  turn  it  some- 
what. The  fourth  class,  represented  by  the  cut- 
away, roll  over  and  cut  the  soil.  There  are 


52.     A  HOME-MADE  SPIKE-TOOTH  HARROW,  IN  TWO  SECTIONS 

This  type  of  harrow  is  unexcelled  for  putting  on  the  finishing  touches  in  fitting  land.     It 
is  not  efficient  on  a  stony  or  soddy  soil 


53.     A  SULKY  HARROW 

The  middle  teeth  can  ho  removed  so  that  the  implement  will  straddle  a  row  of  plants, 
then  becomes  a  cultivator 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING        145 

numerous  variations  of  and  gradations  between 
these  four  types. 

Some  soils  are  benefited  most  by  a  type  of  har- 
row which  may  be  almost  valueless  for  other  soils 
near-by;  hence  we  have  farmers  who  would  not 
use  any  other  harrow  than  a  cutaway  and  spike- 
tooth,  because  these  especially  suit  the  soil  on  their 
farms.  They  even  dispute  with  neighbours  who 
have  a  different  kind  of  soil  and  who  think  nothing 
is  equal  to  a  spading  harrow  and  an  Acme.  More- 
over, they  may  be  growing  a  different  kind  of  a  crop, 
which  may  mean  that  a  different  preparation  of  the 
soil  is  needed.  The  fact  is  there  is  no  best  harrow 
any  more  than  there  is  a  best  plow  or  best  breed 
of  cows.  The  best  harrow  is  the  one  that  prepares 
a  particular  soil  for  a  particular  crop  most  satis- 
factorily; and  soils  and  crops  differ  about  as 
much  as  the  farmers  that  nandle  them.  The 
farmer  should  experiment  with  several  types  of 
harrows  and  find  the  best  for  his  purpose. 

The  Spike-tooth  Harrow  is  a  most  efficient  tool 
under  certain  well-defined  conditions.  There 
are  more  home-made  spike- tooth  harrows  on  Ameri- 
can farms  than  any  other  tillage  tool.  Some  of  the 
older  home-made  spike-tooth  harrows  are  square, 
but  more  commonly  they  are  A-shaped,  with  teeth 
set  vertically  on  the  side  pieces  only  and  a  horse- 
shoe nailed  to  the  nose  for  a  chain  ring.  These 
harrows  did  imperfect  work  as  compared  with  the 
spike-tooth  harrows  of  the  present  time. 

Recent  improvements  in  this  time-honoured  tool 
have  greatly  increased  its  usefulness.  These  are  the 

<p  %/ 

addition  of  many  more  teeth;  providing  that  they 
may  be  adjusted  to  run  either  vertical  or  slanted 
backward  at  various  degrees;  and  making  the  har- 
row in  several  sections,  which  facilitates  cleaning 


146  SOILS 

the  teeth  of  entangled  weeds.  The  implement 
is  now  made  with  a  steel  or  iron  frame,  usually 
rectangular,  and  should  be  provided  with  a  shoe. 
The  more  the  teeth  slant  backward  the  more 
shallow  do  they  work  and  the  greater  is  the  smooth- 
ing effect  of  the  tool.  The  teeth  should  be  set 
straight  only  when  it  is  desired  that  they  work 
deeply  and  tear  up  the  soil. 

The  size  of  the  spike-tooth  harrow  varies  from 
a  single  six-foot  section  to  the  forty-foot  wide 
smoothing  harrow  of  many  sections  that  is  used 
on  prairie  grain  fields.  The  latter  are  drawn  by 
four  to  six  horses  and  cover  thirty  to  forty  acres  a 
day.  The  width  of  all  harrows  has  increased  in 
recent  years  and  is  still  increasing  in  obedience  to 
the  same  demand  that  has  given  us  gang  plows. 
The  wider  a  harrow  is  the  steadier  it  runs. 

Usefulness  of  the  Spike-tooth  Harrow — The 
spike-tooth  harrow  is  seldom  used  now  to  tear 
up  rough-plowed  ground,  as  it  was  some  years 
ago  before  improved  harrows  were  available. 
The  old  time  spike-tooth  harrow  had  a  few  long, 
heavy  teeth  which  tore  up  sod  quite  effectively, 
especially  when  weighted  with  rocks,  or  pro- 
vided with  a"  platform  for  the  driver.  At  the 
present  time  most  spike- tooth  harrows  are  of  the 
type  called  "smoothing  harrows,"  having  numerous 
small  and  short  teeth.  When  the  teeth  are  so 
short  that  the  bar  in  which  they  are  set  scrapes  the 
ground  when  it  is  in  use,  the  implement  is  often 
called  a  "drag."  This  type  of  harrow  is  chiefly 
valuable  for  one  purpose — to  put  the  finishing 
touches  on  a  piece  of  land  tnat  needs  to  be 
made  very  mellow  and  very  level  for  seeding. 
It  is  usually  preceded  by  a  stronger  and  deeper- 
working  tool,  as  a  disk  or  spring-tooth  harrow. 


54.     A  SPRING-TOOTH  HARROW 

The  depth  at  which  it  works  is  regulated  by  the  levers.     It  is  often  made  larger  than  this. 
The  same  tool  is  used  as  an  orchard  cultivator 


55.     THE  WORK  OF  A  SPRING-TOOTH  HARROW 

It  is  particularly  serviceable  for  loosening  a  comract  soil,  as  the  terth  pull  up.  and  is  a 

valuable   tool  on   stony,  cloddy,   and   soddy  land.     It  is  often  desirable, 

however,  to  level  off  the  high  ridges  left  by  a  spring-tooth  harrow 


56.    "SWEEPS"  ATTACHED  TO  A  PLOW-STOCK,  FOR  "LAYING  BY"  CORN 
They  cut  off  large  weeds,  but  injure  roots  and  leave  the  soil  ridged 


67.    THE  EFFECT  OF  USING  THE  ABOVE  TOOL  FOR  CULTIVATING  A 
COTTON  FIELD 

Note  the  high  ridges  from  which  much  water  evajxirates,  and  the  deep  furrows  which 
favour  the  washing  away  of  fine  soil 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       147 

A  second  occasion  when  a  spike-tooth  harrow 
may  be  used  to  advantage  is  in  tilling  a  crop  before 
it  has  come  up,  or  even  afterwards.  Land  in  corn 
or  potatoes,  for  example,  may  be  run  over  a  few 
days  after  planting  with  a  shallow- working  spike- 
tooth  harrow  with  the  teeth  slanted  backward; 
this  will  kill  the  young  weeds  and  check  the  escape 
of  moisture.  This  kind  of  tillage  can  be  repeated 
to  advantage  every  few  days  until  the  plants  are 
two  or  three  inches  high,  or  until  they  are  bruised 
by  passing  between  the  teeth. 

The  spike-tooth  harrow  presses  down  into  the 
soil  and  compacts  it  more  than  most  other  har- 
rows. It  has  something  of  the  effect  of  a  roller. 
For  this  reason  it  is  somewhat  more  useful  on  light, 
sandy  soils  which  need  compacting,  than  upon 
heavy  soils,  although  its  compacting  effect  is  not 
sufficiently  injurious  to  warrant  its  being  discard- 
ed for  finishing  and  smoothing  the  heavier  soils. 

Spring-tooth  Harrow. — The  curved  spring  teeth 
of  this  popular  tool  enable  it  to  clear  obstructions 
easily;  for  this  reason  it  is  especially  valuable  on 
stony,  rooty  or  stumpy  land.  The  teeth  can  be 
set  by  a  lever  to  run  at  various  depths;  this  also 
affects  the  quality  of  the  work  done.  The  spring- 
tooth  harrow  leaves  the  soil  in  ridges  of  consider- 
able height,  which  is  a  disadvantage  in  many  cases, 
as  it  causes  the  soil  to  lose  more  water  from  the 
greater  surface  exposed  to  evaporation.  This 
objection  may  be  overcome  by  following  it  with  a 
smoothing  harrow.  A  section  of  smoothing  har- 
row is  frequently  attached  behind  the  spring- 
tooth  harrow,  or  a  joist  or  plank,  say  2  inches  by  6 
inches,  or  a  heavy  iron  pipe  may  drag  behind  it. 
Any  one  of  these  devices  is  quite  successful  in 
levelling  the  ridges  left  by  the  broad  teeth. 


148  SOILS 

The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  a  good  implement 
for  rough  work,  and  especially  for  stony  ground. 
It  is  very  popular  for  orchard  tillage,  partly  be- 
cause the  teeth  spring  over  the  roots  with  little 
damage  to  them.  It  is  not  so  serviceable  when  sod, 

^5 

freen  manure,  or  a  large  quantity  of  strawy  manure 
as  been  plowed  under,  as  the  teeth  are  likely  to 
dig  out  part  of  this  material  and  leave  it  on  the 
surface. 

On  rough  land  the  spring-tooth  harrow  is  jerky 
and  hard  upon  the  horses'  shoulders.  The  draft 
of  a  spring-tooth  harrow  set  moderately  deep  is 
about  equal  to  the  draft  in  plowing,  but  it  is  easier 
for  a  team  to  plow  all  day  than  to  pull  a  spring- 
tooth  harrow  all  day,  because  the  plow  runs  more 
evenly.  The  jerkiness  of  the  common  type  of 
this  harrow — in  which  all  the  weight  rests  upon  the 
teeth — is  largely  overcome  in  a  more  recent  form, 
which  is  mounted  on  wheels.  All  the  weight  of 
this  implement  rests  upon  the  wheels,  thus  allow- 
ing the  teeth  to  pull  up  and  loosen  the  soil,  and  re- 
lieving somewhat  the  unevenness  in  draft.  Even 
the  common  type  of  spring-tooth  harrow,  however, 
leaves  the  soil  lighter  than  most  other  harrows 
because  of  the  upward  pull  of  the  teeth.  It  is  this 
advantage,  as  well  as  durability  and  the  ease  with 
which  obstructions  are  cleared,  that  makes  the 
spring-tooth  harrow  so  popular.  It  can  be  bought 
by  sections  in  various  sizes;  the  wider  it  is,  within 
reasonable  limits,  the  cheaper  will  the  harrowing 
be  done. 

Acme  Harrow. — This  is  the  most  noted  repre- 
sentative of  a  type  of  implements  known  as  the 
coulter  harrows,  so  called  (because  they  have  teeth 
that  have  been  twisted,  somewhat  resembling  a 
plow  coulter.  The  teeth  first  cut  the  soil, 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       149 

then  raise,  turn  and  pulverise  it,  doing  the  work  of 
a  plow  on  a  small  scale.  It  has  been  stated 
that  the  plow  makes  the  best  mulch  to  prevent  the 
escape  or  soil  water.  The  great  efficiency  of  the 
Acme  and  similar  harrows  rests  upon  their  appli- 
cation of  the  cutting,  raising  and  pulverising  action 
of  a  plow.  In  the  judgment  of  many  people  the 
Acme  harrow  will  give  satisfaction  over  a  wider 
range  of  conditions  than  any  other  type.  It  will 
work  from  one  to  four  inches  deep,  as  is  desired. 
Following  the  plow  it  breaks  up  the  furrows  as 
well  as  any  other  tool  unless  the  land  is  rocky  or 
the  sod  tough,  in  which  case  a  disk  or  spring-tooth 
harrow  is  better.  It  leaves  the  soil  nearly  as  level 
and  mellow  as  a  smoothing  harrow. 

Rolling  Harrows. — Harrows  of  this  class  have  one 
or  more  revolving  shafts  to  which  are  attached 
a  number  of  disks,  which  are  either  entire, 
as  in  the  common  disk  harrow,  or  notched, 
as  in  the  spading  and  cutaway  harrows.  These 
harrows  work  deeper  than  harrows  of  any  other 
class.  They  are  especially  valuable  for  working 
heavy  soil,  tough  sod  and  intractable  land  of  any 
sort.  Two  things  decrease  their  value  for  estab- 
lishing a  soil  mulch — they  leave  the  soil  in  rather 
high  ridges,  which  evaporate  much  moisture;  and, 
if  not  adjusted  properly,  the  disks  do  not  stir  all  the 
surface,  but  leave  a  triangle  or  cone  of  unstirred 
soil.  The  ridges  may  be  levelled  by  dragging  a 
section  of  a  smoothing  harrow  or  a  heavy  joist  be- 
hind, but  the  draft  on  harrows  of  this  type  is  heavy 
enough  without  this  additional  burden;  it  is  some- 
what greater  than  a  plow,  in  most  soils. 

Usually  the  disk,  cutaway  and  spading  harrows 
should  be  used  only  to  do  the  rough  work  of  fitting 


150  SOILS 

the  land;  to  tear  it  and  bring  it  up  to  the  point 
where  an  Acme  or  smoothing  narrow  can  be  used 
to  advantage.  They  are  sometimes  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  plow,  when  deep  tillage  is  not 
necessary  or  is  not  practicable;  as  to  tear  up  the 
sod  in  an  old  orchard  that  it  is  proposed  to  culti- 
vate, or  to  fit  land  for  fall  wheat  after  a  crop  of 
beans  has  been  harvested.  Some  Western  farmers 
fit  the  land  in  spring  for  the  cereals,  using  one  of 
these  harrows  wnich  can  stir  the  ground  5  inches 
deep. 

The  great  trouble  with  any  one  of  these  rolling 
harrows,  in  the  hands  of  a  careless  workman, 
is  that  the  disks  will  be  so  set  that  they  plow 
out  wide,  deep  groves,  leaving  untouched  ridges 
between  them,  which  are  lightly  covered  with  loose 
soil.  In  order  to  completely  stir  the  soil  and  establish 
an  efficient  mulch  me  disks  should  be  set  so  that 
they  will  enter  the  soil  at  a  wide  angle.  Rolling 
harrows  are  made  in  two  sections  or  gangs  and 
the  gangs  throw  dirt  in  opposite  directions, 
usually  from  the  centre  outward.  This  makes 
it  necessary  to  overlap  in  order  to  keep  the  ground 
level,  but  a  better  way  is  to  level  it  with  a 
smoothing  harrow. 

The  comparative  merits  of  the  three  leading 
rolling  harrows — the  disk,  cutaway  and  spading — 
is  the  subject  of  much  needless  dispute.  Some 
farmers  are  partisans  for  one  and  some  for  another, 
according  to  the  way  it  strikes  their  fancy  or  the 
way  it  works  on  their  soils.  In  general  they  handle 
the  soil  in  about  the  same  way.  Probably  the 
disk  harrow  is  used  more  than  the  other  two  at  the 
present  time,  partly  because  it  is  less  likely  to 
break.  The  Meeker  harrow,  which  is  used  by 
many  market  gardeners  and  truck  farmers,  is 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       151 

essentially  the  same  as  the  disk  harrow,  except  that 
it  has  many  very  small  disks  permanently  fixed 
in  a  rectangular  frame,  instead  of  a  few  large  ones. 
It  leaves  tne  soil  about  as  smooth  as  an  iron  rake 
and  is  used  solely  for  preparing  a  very  level  seed- 
bed. 

WHEN    SOIL    IS    READY   TO    HARROW 

In   harrowing,  as  well  as  in  plowing,  there  is  a 

?ood  deal  in  catching  the  soil  at  the  right  time, 
f  the  land  is  inclined  to  be  wet  and  the  upturned 
furrows  have  a  glazed  appearance  it  is  well  to  let 
them  dry  before  harrowing.  Several  hours,  or 
even  several  days,  may  be  needed  to  bring  them  to 
that  stage  of  dryness  when  the  soil  will  crumble 
nicely.  No  other  consideration  should  influence 
one  to  harrow  before  this.  It  is  better  to  lose  some 
of  the  water  in  this  soil  by  evaporation  than  to  run 
any  risk  of  injuring  its  texture.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  soil  turns  over  mellow  and  ready  to  be 
harrowed  at  once  the  time  to  catch  it  is  right  then, 
before  it  becomes  dry  on  top.  A  delay  of  a  single 
day  in  harrowing  a  plowed  field  may  mean  that  half 
an  inch  or  more  of  the  precious  water  in  it  has 
been  lost.  After  the  furrows  have  dried  out  con- 
siderably they  may  become  hard  and  cloddy  and 
will  be  pulverised  with  greater  difficulty. 

The  soil  should  be  moist,  not  wet  or  dry, 
in  order  to  do  the  most  effective  harrowing. 
Some  of  the  lighter  soils  dry  out  very  quickly 
in  the  furrow,  even  in  an  hour  or  two.  If 
it  can  be  done  without  too  much  inconven- 
ience it  is  best  to  harrow  these  soils  within  a 
few  hours  after  they  are  plowed — certainly  the 
same  day.  \Vhen  but  one  team  is  plowing  on  a 


152  SOILS 

light  soil  it  will  pay  to  take  it  off  the  plow  and  hitch 
it  to  the  harrow  early  enough  to  make  a  mellow 
seed  bed  of  the  furrow-slices  before  nightfall.  This 
is  much  better  than  to  defer  harrowing  until  the 
plowing  is  finished.  The  subsoil  is  compacted  in 
narrowing;  this  starts  capillary  action  and  water 
is  drawn  from  the  soil  below,  and  would  escape 
were  it  not  for  the  mulch  of  fine  soil  left  on  me 
surface  by  the  harrow.  The  compacting  effect  on 
the  subsoil  by  harrowing  is  a  benefit  on  most  soils. 

LEADING   TYPES   OF   CULTIVATORS 

As  the  term  is  commonly  used,  a  cultivator  is 
any  toothed  implement  that  is  used  to  stir  the  soil 
after  it  has  been  fitted,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  weeds  and  preventing  the  loss  of  soil  water. 
Many  harrows  are  used  as  cultivators  under  certain 
conditions;  as  when  a  spring-tooth  harrow  is  used 
to  preserve  the  soil  mulch  in  an  orchard,  or  when  a 
spike-tooth  harrow  is  used  to  run  over  the  potato 
field  when  the  sprouts  are  still  small  enough  to 
slip  between  the  teeth  without  injury.  When 
narrowed  down  to  its  most  distinctive  usage  a 
cultivator  is  a  toothed  implement  drawn  by  one 
horse  and  used  for  inter-tillage,  or  for  preserving 
the  mulch  between  rows  of  plants.  Most  of  these 
kinds  of  cultivators,  however,  are  only  small 
harrows  with  handles  attached,  and  they  stir  the 
soil  in  about  the  same  way  as  the  harrows  that  have 
been  described.  All  kinds  of  cultivators  are  some- 
times called  "  horse  hoes,"  but  this  name  seems  to  be 
especially  fitted  for  the  broad-tooth  coulter 
cultivators. 

The  following  classes  of  cultivators  include  most 
of  those  in  common  use,  but  there  is  an  almost 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       153 

endless  variation  in  the  details  of  construction  in 
each  class. 

Shovel-tooth  or  Coulter  Cultivators. — Probably 
more  of  the  cultivators  used  in  this  country  belong 
to  this  class  than  to  any  other.  The  teeth  of  dif- 
ferent cultivators  vary  greatly  in  shape  and  size; 
nearly  all  enter  the  ground  at  an  angle  and  are 
rounded  on  the  front  side.  Many  coulter  culti- 
vators work  up  the  soil  like  a  plow,  lifting,  turning 
and  pulverising  it  to  some  extent.  The  soil  is 
loosened  to  a  depth  of  two  to  five  inches,  depending 
upon  the  style  of  cultivator  and  upon  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  lever  with  which  many  coulter  culti- 
vators are  provided.  The  surface  of  the  soil  is 
left  either  quite  level  or  in  rather  high  ridges,  de- 
pending upon  the  width  of  the  teeth.  The  wider 
they  are  the  rougher  they  leave  the  soil. 

Cultivators  with  about  five  broad  teeth  work  the 
ground  deeply  and  are  especially  valuable  for  loosen- 
ing heavy  or  compact  soil;  but  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  weeds  or  preserving  a  mulch,  a  cultivator 
with  more  and  narrower  teeth  is  much  better. 
There  are  too  many  broad-toothed,  deep-working 
cultivators  used  and  too  few  narrow-toothed 
shallow- working  tools.  Each  kind  is  most  useful 
for  a  certain  definite  purpose ;  the  one  for  loosening 
a  hard  soil,  as  after  planting  or  after  a  beating  rain; 
the  other  for  preserving  the  shallow  mulch  that  is 
the  most  useful  and  economical  kind  of  tillage 
during  the  summer.  Various  attachments  accom- 
pany coulter  cultivators,  such  as  wings  for  hilling 
or  ridging,  and  rolling  disks  to  cut  off  strawberry 
runners. 

Spike-tooth  Cultivators. — Implements  of  this 
class  have  become  very  popular  in  recent  years, 
and  deservedly  so.  The  spike-tooth  cultivator  is 


154  SOILS 

simply  a  spike- tooth  harrow,  shaped  like  an  A, 
with  handles  attached.  It  may  be  worked  shallow 
and  leave  the  surface  very  level;  for  this  reason 
it  is  considered  one  of  the  best  tools  for  preserving 
the  soil  mulch  after  it  has  been  made  by  deeper 
Working  tools.  The  teeth  may  be  straight  on  one 
end  and  bent  forward  on  the  other  and  it  should 
be  easy  to  reverse  the  ends.  The  bent  end  works 
deeper.  Most  makes  are  also  provided  with  a 
lever  to  regulate  the  depth  at  which  the  teeth 
work.  The  spike-tooth  cultivator  is  not  a  good 
implement  for  killing  weeds  except  when  they  are 
less  than  half  an  inch  high.  It  is  preeminently 
a  tool  for  making  a  mulch.  If  weeds  get  a  start 
the  broader  teeth  of  the  coulter  cultivator  will  up- 
root them  much  better. 

The  advantage  of  using  a  spike-tooth  harrow  as 
a  cultivator  for  stirring  the  entire  surface  of  the 
soil,  where  corn,  potatoes,  peas,  beets  and  many 
other  crops  have  been  planted,  has  already  been 
alluded  to.  Many  people  are  afraid  to  use  this 
harrow  for  this  purpose,  thinking  it  will  pull  up  the 
crop  as  well  as  the  weeds.  But  little  if  any  injury 
to  the  crop  results  from  this  harrowing,  chiefly 
because  the  seeds  of  the  crop  have  been  planted 
deeply  and  the  soil  firmed  around  them;  while 
the  weed  seeds  are  mostly  on  or  near  the  surface; 
hence  young  weeds  have  a  much  slighter  hold  upon 
the  soil  than  the  crop.  The  harrow  may  be  used 
for  cultivating  these  crops  until  they  are  four 
to  six  inches  high;  it  is  the  most  economical  culti- 
vating that  can  be  given. 

Spring-tooth  Cultivators,  usually  with  five  teeth, 
are  occasionally  used.  Like  spring-tooth  harrows, 
they  work  deeply,  loosening  the  sou  for  four  or  five 
inches  if  necessary.  For  this  reason  they  are  quite 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       155 

serviceable  on  the  heavier  soils.  But  the  superior 
value  of  shallow  cultivation  has  been  demonstrated 
so  conclusively  that  it  is  doubtful  if  the  spring- 
tooth  cultivator  has  any  advantages  over  the  more 
common  coulter  cultivator  and  spike-tooth  culti- 
vator, except  for  the  specific  purpose  of  loosening  a 
hard  soil.  It  is  not  as  efficient  a  weed  killer  as  the 
coulter  type  of  tool. 

Sulky  Cultivators. — Probably  90  per  cent,  of  the 
cultivators  used  in  the  United  States  are  walking 
coulter  or  spike-tooth  tools,  or  some  gradation  be- 
tween the  two.  Sulky  or  riding  cultivators  are 
used  principally  in  the  "corn  belt"  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  and  are  seen  occasionally  in  the  East. 
In  most  of  them  the  teeth  are  in  two  gangs  with  a 
space  between  for  the  row  of  corn  or  other  plants. 
Two  horses  are  used,  one  walking  on  one  side  of 
the  row  and  the  other  on  the  opposite  side,  the 
cultivator  wheels  straddling  the  row  and  the  teeth 
working  on  both  sides  of  it.  Sulky  cultivators 
nearly  all  have  coulter  teeth,  but  a  few  have  spike 
teeth,  spring  teeth  or  even  disks.  The  coulter 
teeth  are  preferable  in  most  cases.  Disks  are  apt 
to  work  too  deep  close  to  the  rows.  Disk  culti- 
vators are  excellent,  however,  for  chopping  up  and 
destroying  large  weeds,  if  the  crop  gets  very  foul. 
Several  different  sets  of  shovels  are  usually  pro- 
vided, including  extra  shovels  which  may  be 
attached  so  as  to  run  where  the  row  space  is  left, 
thus  making  a  sulky  harrow  which  stirs  soil  for  its 
full  width  and  is  used  to  prepare  the  soil  for 
planting. 

The  chief  advantages  of  a  sulky  cultivator 
are  that  it  covers  more  ground  than  a  walking 
implement  and  saves  the  strength  of  the  farmer. 
But  it  does  not  do  as  good  work,  as  a  rule,  since  it 


156  SOILS 

is  impossible  to  guide  it  so  carefully.  It  always 
damages  the  young  plants  more  than  a  walking 
cultivator,  even  when  the  very  serviceable  plant 
guard  attachment  is  used  on  each  side  of  the  row  to 
prevent  dirt  from  being  thrown  against  the  young 
plants.  Moreover,  a  sulky  cultivator  is  consider- 
ably harder  to  draw  than  a  walking  cultivator. 

Weeders. — The  essential  principle  of  all  the 
several  kinds  of  weeders  is  one  or  more  rows  of 
long,  flexible  teeth  which  stir  the  ground  a  good 
deal  like  the  teeth  of  a  horse  rake;  not  being 
curved  at  the  lower  end,  they  do  not  stir  it  deeply. 
The  teeth  are  either  round  or  flat.  The  more 
common  weeders  stir  a  section  of  soil  from  six  to 
nine  feet  wide;  there  are  also  adjustable  weeders 
in  two  sections  which  stir  from  two  and  one-half 
to  seven  and  one-half  feet  of  soil. 

Weeders  are  useful  for  three  purposes — to  kill 
very  young  weeds;  to  preserve  a  shallow  mulch 
after  the  soil  has  been  loosened  by  a  deeper  working 
tool;  and  to  cover  broadcasted  seed.  They  are 
used  chiefly  for  stirring  the  entire  surface  of  the 
ground  that  has  been  planted  to  row  crops,  as  corn, 
potatoes,  parsnips  and  market-garden  crops  in 

general,  doing  the  same  work  as  the  smoothing 
arrow,  but  not  stirring  the  soil  so  deeply.  The 
teeth  tear  up  and  kill  tiny  weeds  just  appearing  on 
the  surface,  but  since  the  crop  plants  are  anchored 
firmly  in  the  soil  by  deeper  roots  they  readily  pass 
between  the  flexible  teeth  without  injury. 

A  weeder  is  not  effective  unless  it  is  used  very 
frequently,  or  often  enough  to  prevent  any  weeds 
from  getting  sufficiently  large  to  resist  the  teeth. 
It  cannot  be  used  successfully  on  stony  soil.  In 
some  sections,  and  especially  in  market  gardens, 
weeders  are  used  very  extensively;  some  truckers 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       157 

do  most  of  their  tillage  with  them  up  to  the  time 
when  the  plants  get  too  large  to  pass  between  the 
long  teeth  without  bruising.  Since  the  weeder 
stirs  the  soil  no  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  to 
two  inches  deep,  it  should  be  supplemented  with 
the  cultivator  whenever  the  soil  gets  hard.  This 
is  especially  true  on  the  heavier  soils,  which  are 
apt  to  get  caked  beneath  the  very  shallow  mulch 
made  by  the  weeder.  The  weeder  is  a  special 
purpose  tool,  as  compared  with  the  coulter  culti- 
vator, which  is  a  general  purpose  tool.  It  is  most 
useful  in  growing  crops  under  intensive  culture 
and  on  soils  of  the  best  texture. 

CULTIVATING   TO    KILL   WEEDS 

How  often  to  cultivate  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  kind  of  crop,  the  dry  ness  of  the 
season,  the  prevalence  of  weeds,  etc.  It  is  a  local 
and  personal  problem.  This  much  is  certain; 
one  should  cultivate  often  enough  to  keep  down 
weeds,  at  least  during  the  early  part  of  the  season. 
This  advice  would  appear  to  be  superfluous  were 
it  not  that  so  many  farmers  do  not  keep  down 
weeds. 

Weeds  injure  the  plants  and  reduce  the  yield 
in  several  ways.  They  crowd  and  shade  the 
plants,  thus  keeping  part  of  the  life-giving  sunshine 
away  from  them,  making  them  spindling,  like 
forest  pines  which  are  drawn  up  to  a  great  height 
in  their  desperate  struggle  with  each  other  to  get 
light.  They  steal  food  from  the  plants.  Every 
young  corn  plant  that  is  being  choked  above  ground 
by  the  tops  of  weeds  is  also  being  jostled  below  by 


158  SOILS 

their  roots.  These  are  in  every  inch  of  soil 
that  the  corn  roots  have  penetratea,  disputing  with 
them  for  its  richness.  There  are  many  figures  on 
the  amount  of  plant  foods  removed  from  the  soil 
by  various  crops,  but  how  about  the  amount  of 
plant  food  taken  out  of  the  soil  by  a  big  crop  of 
weeds  in  a  potato  field?  It  is  true  that  the 
weeds  are  plowed  under  eventually,  so  that  the 
plant  food  they  use  is  not  lost  to  the  soil;  but  it  is 
lost  to  that  particular  crop,  anyhow,  and  the  crop 
would  have  been  bigger  if  the  plants  could  have 
had  the  use  of  all  the  surface  richness  that  the 
shallow-feeding  weeds  have  gobbled  up.  I  like 
to  see  a  farmer  stop  his  cultivator,  even  on  his  way 
to  dinner,  to  pull  up  a  particularly  lusty  and 
arrogant  weed.  He  knows  it  is  robbing  him.  The 
insidious  drain  that  weeds  make  upon  the  most 
available  fertility  of  our  fields  is  not  appreciated 
half  as  much  as  it  ought  to  be. 

Weeds  Steal  Water. — Weeds  rob  the  plants  of 
water  as  well  as  of  food.  They  use  as  much  and 
sometimes  more  water  than  cultivated  plants  in 
proportion  to  their  size  and  weight.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  they  inflict  the  greatest  injury  to  crops. 
The  plant  food  they  use  is  restored  to  the  land,  and 
perhaps  the  crop  of  another  year  may  use  it,  but 
the  water  they  use  is  lost;  most  of  it  passes  off 
into  the  air  through  their  leaves.  There  are 
figures  on  how  much  soil  water  is  used  in  growing 
a  crop  of  corn  or  potatoes;  how  much  water  is 
used  in  growing  a  big  crop  of  weeds  between  the 
corn  or  potatoes  ?  Jrerhaps  not  so  much,  but 
certainly  nearly  as  much.  Where  soil  moisture  is 
as  important  as  it  is  in  most  parts  of  the  country  the 


58.     THE  MOST  COMMON*  TYPE  OF  DEEP-WORKING  COULTER-TOOTH 

CULTIVATOR 

It  is  excellent  for  breaking  a  crust  and  loosening  a  hard  soil,  but  a  shallow-working  tool 
with  narrower  teeth  is  better  for  making  a  mulch 


59.     YOUNG  CORN  IN  NEED  OF  A  CULTIVATION 

This  crust,  formed  by  a  beating  rain,  is  evaporating  water.     It  should  be  pulverised 
into  a  mulch 


60.  A  CULTIVATOR  THAT  IS  REALLY  A  PLOW 

Usually  it  is  unwise  to  "plow  out"  corn  in  this  way.  unless  the  soil  gets  very  hard. 
Plow  deeply  in  spring,  fit  the  land  thoroughly,  and  cultivate  shallow  thereafter 


01.     CULTIVATING  AT  A  DISADVANTAGE 

The  rows  ol  corn  that  cross  this  steep  North  Carolina  hill  must  be  cultivated  skilfully  to 
prevent  washing.     Note  that  rows  are  nearly  level 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING        159 

farmer  can  ill  afford  to  spare  water,  even  to  grow 
weeds  that  will  enrich  his  soil  when  plowed  under. 
He  had  better  grow  plants  to  plow  under  in  late 
fall,  after  the  crop  has  ceased  to  need  much  water. 

This  advice  is  unnecessary  for  the  majority  of 
farmers,  who  hate  a  weed  and  understand  how 
much  it  works  against  their  interests.  But  some 
farmers  appear  to  have  gotten  so  accustomed  to 
having  weeds  in  their  fields  that  they  have  come  to 
view  them  with  greater  leniency,  even  with  toler- 
ation. Weeds,  like  the  poor,  are  always  with  us; 
we  are  liable  to  grow  indifferent  to  both. 

Cultivation  is  the  greatest  weed-killing  device 
yet  known,  at  least  for  crops  that  permit  of  inter- 
tillage.  Some  people  are  always  looking  for  some 
new  or  patent  way  of  getting  rid  of  weeds  with 
little  labour,  but  no  good  substitute  for  cultivation 
has  yet  been  found.  In  making  the  earth  yield 
her  increase  nothing  can  take  the  place  of  stirring 
the  soil.  Most  weeds  are  annuals;  these  are 
shallow  rooted  and  are  easily  uptorn  by  the 
cultivator  teeth.  Some,  however,  are  perennials 
and  deeper  rooted.  These  may  require  special 
treatment,  such  as  rotation  of  crops. 

THE    BEST   TIME    TO    KILL   WEEDS 

In  cultivating  to  kill  weeds  it  makes  a  difference 
what  stage  they  are  in.  The  vulnerable  stages  of 
most  weeds  are  immediately  after  they  have 
sprouted,  and  when  they  are  in  flower.  Some 
perennial  weeds,  especially  pasture  weeds,  may  be 
killed  best  when  in  flower;  but  the  sprouting 
stage  is  the  time  to  attack  most  weeds  on  cultivated 


160  SOILS 

land.  Weed  seeds  are  mostly  in  the  first  inch  or 
two  of  soil;  a  very  shallow  cultivation  will  expose 
the  sprouting  seeds  and  young  weeds  to  the  merci- 
less sun.  Many  of  the  finer-seeded  kinds  are 
buried  so  deeply  by  a  deep-working  cultivator  that 
they  never  come  up  again,  especially  if  a  coulter 
cultivator  is  used.  It  is  easy  to  kill  weeds  in  this 
way,  but  it  is  difficult  to  kill  them  after  they  are  so 
large  that  cultivator  teeth  do  not  uproot  them,  and 
cultivating  must  be  supplemented  by  hoeing  and 
hand-pulling. 

There  is  no  better  illustration  of  the  old  adage 
"a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine"  than  in  the  killing  of 
weeds.  It  pays  to  be  forehanded  in  cultivating 
more  than  any  other  work  on  the  farm.  The  time 
to  start  the  cultivator  is  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  tiny  weeds,  just  appearing  above  the  surface, 
whether  it  has  been  six  days  or  sixteen  days  since 
the  last  tillage.  A  delay  of  three  or  four  days,  or 
until  the  young  weeds  get  their  roots  established 
two  or  three  inches  deep,  means  that  many  of  them 
will  not  be  uprooted  by  the  cultivator.  That  is 
the  beginning  of  a  foul  field.  The  profit  in  growing 
ordinary  farm  crops  depends  largely  upon  the 
farmer's  ability  to  do  as  much  of  the  work  as  pos- 
sible with  horse  labour,  which  is  cheap,  and  as 
little  as  possible  with  manual  labour,  which  is 
dear.  Many  farmers  have  demonstrated  that  it  is 
easier  and  cheaper  to  kill  weeds  with  the  culti- 
vator than  to  let  many  of  them  grow  large  and 
then  be  obliged  to  hoe  and  pull  them.  More  culti- 
vations are  necessary,  but  less  hoeings. 

When  Weeds  Get  a  Start. — Weeds  are  most  apt 
to  get  a  start  during  the  interval  between  the  time 
that  the  crop  is  planted  and  when  it  is  up.  The 
season  may  be  cold  and  backward,  and  ten  days 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       161 

or  two  weeks  may  intervene.  At  the  end  of  this 
time  ground  which  was  mellow  and  weedless  when 
planted  is  covered  with  a  dense  mat  of  small  weeds. 
Most  of  these  can  be  worked  out  with  a  cultivator, 
but  some  of  them  are  already  rooted  so  firmly 
that  the  cultivator  teeth  do  not  uproot  them. 
From  this  beginning  may  be  traced  the  growth  of 
many  a  weedy  field.  In  recent  years  farmers  and 
gardeners  have  come  to  appreciate  more  fully  the 
advantages  of  harrowing  the  soil  once  or  twice 
before  the  crop  is  up.  Weeders  are  also  used; 
in  small  home  gardens  an  iron  rake  answers 
very  well.  In  this  way  the  crop  starts  off  clean 
instead  of  foul.  Where  freedom  from  weeds  is  as 
important  as  it  is  in  growing  onions  the  rows  are 
sometimes  marked  by  sowing  a  few  radish  seeds 
with  the  onions;  these  sprout  long  before  the 
onions  and  show  where  the  scuffle  hoe  can  go  be- 
fore the  onions  are  up. 

When  the  crop  is  "laid  by,"  or  after  the  last 
cultivation,  is  another  dangerous  time  for  the  prop- 
agation of  weeds.  The  cultivation  of  many  crops 
is  stopped  in  early  or  mid-summer,  either  because 
the  tops  are  so  large  that  it  would  injure  them  to 
crowd  between  the  rows  with  a  cultivator,  as  for 
potatoes;  or  because  it  benefits  'the  plant  to  grow 
more  slowly  during  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  as 
for  fruits.  This  period  of  relaxation  on  the 
part  of  the  farmer  becomes  the  busy  season  of  some 
weeds.  They  crowd  in  beneath  the  crop  and  get 
so  firmly  established  that  many  of  them  are  on  hand 
to  bother  the  farmer  after  the  next  spring  plowing. 
If  perennial  weeds  are  allowed  to  make  leaves  at 
any  time  during  the  summer  or  fall  they  are  likely 
to  appear  again  next  spring.  There  are  two  ways 
of  handling  this  difficulty :  one  is  to  keep  the  weeds 


162  SOILS 

cut  out  with  a  hoe  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
season;  the  other  is  to  sow  some  catch  crop  at  the 
time  of  the  last  cultivation,  to  catch  and  use  the 
leaching  plant  food  and  water,  to  keep  the  soil 
from  washing  and  to  crowd  out  weeds.  Both  are 
worth  being  considered  by  the  man  who  wishes 
to  keep  his  farm  clean. 

Weed  Collectors. — There  are  other  ways  of 
helping  to  keep  down  weeds  besides  cultivation. 
One  of  the  most  important  is  to  change  the  crop, 
which  is  discussed  fully  under  rotation  of  crops  in 
Chapter  XI.  Another  is  to  keep  fence  rows, 
corners,  pastures  and  all  waste  places  about  the 
farm  clean.  The  fence  row  around  the  field  is 
often  full  of  the  very  weeds  that  the  farmer  is 
fighting  by  cultivation.  Never  allow  bad  weeds  to 
go  to  seed  in  these  places;  mow  them  frequently. 
A  much  better  plan,  however,  is  to  dispense  with 
the  fence,  and  other  weed-catching  obstructions,  as 
much  as  possible.  Fences  and  walls  are  unsightly 
and  they  are  a  nuisance  unless  they  serve  the 
necessary  purpose  of  keeping  out  stock. 

There  are  many  more  fences  in  this  country 
than  there  is  any  need  of,  especially  in  the 
older  Eastern  States.  Riding  over  certain  parts 
of  New  England,  one  would  think  that  the 
farmers  of  a  generation  or  two  ago  put  in  most 
of  their  spare  time  building  stone  walls,  so 
checker-boarded  is  the  country  with  them.  Of 
course  the  stones  had  to  be  picked  off  the  land,  but 
surely  there  was  a  cheaper  way  of  disposing  of  them 
than  by  laying  them  up  into  walls  five  feet  high 
and  three  feet  thick,  around  every  two  or  three  acres 
of  the  farm ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  amount  of  land 
thus  covered  and  made  useless.  It  is  good  to  see 
the  present  reaction  from  fence  and  wall  building 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       163 

No  more  of  them  are  being  built  now  than  are 
needed  to  confine  stock,  and  portable  fences  are 
being  used  more  and  more.  This  adds  much  to 
the  sightliness  and  convenience  of  the  farm  and 
much,  also,  to  its  freedom  from  weeds. 

The  Prevalence  of  Weeds  in  Sown  Crops. — 
Weeds  are  most  apt  to  overrun  a  place  when 
crops  are  grown  that  permit  of  no  cultivation. 
Witness  for  example,  the  devastation  of  the  Canada 
thistle,  Russian  thistle,  devil's  paint  brush,  etc.,  in 
the  grain  fields  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Pro- 
fessor I.  P.  Roberts  says,  "It  is  believed  that  the 
time  is  not  far  distant  when  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
and  indeed  all  grains  that  are  now  broadcasted  or 
drilled,  will  receive  inter-cultural  tillage  similar  to 
that  now  given  to  maize  (corn) ,  and  this  will  not  be 
by  hand,  as  in  some  portions  of  Europe,  but  by 
horse-hoe  tillage."  This  time  is  a  long  way  off 
in  America,  where  tillable  land  is  abundant  and 
cheap,  but  undoubtedly  the  drift  is  in  that  direction 
—fewer  plants  per  acre,  more  tillage,  larger  yields. 
When  the  cereals,  now  more  grievously  affected 
with  weeds  than  hoed  crops,  are  brought  under 
this  system  of  culture,  they  will  be  relieved  from 
weeds  by  the  magic  that  lies  in  cultivator  teeth. 
Over  three  centuries  ago  quaint  Thomas  Tusser 
expressed  one  of  the  most  important  facts  in  the 
agriculture  of  his  times,  and  of  ours,  in  the  couplet : 

"Good  tilth  brings  seeds, 
111  tilture,  weeds." 

CULTIVATION   TO   SAVE   WATER 

In  the  humid  sections  of  our  country,  if  the  season 
is  fairly  wet  one  does  not  need  to  worry  much 
about  cultivating  to  save  water  early  in  the  season. 


164  SOILS 

If  he  cultivates  as  often  as  the  weeds  poke  them- 
selves above  ground,  which  they  do  with  astonish- 
ing alacrity  and  in  countless  numbers  after  each 
tillage,  he  will  have  established  the  best  kind  of  a 
water-saving  mulch.  This  is  especially  true  in  a 
wet  May,  and  most  especially  true  in  a  muggy, 
thundery  July,  when  "pusley"  starts  up  from  the 
ground  and  grows  a  foot  long  in  a  single  night,  so 
it  seems  to  our  disheartened  eyes.  But  there  are 
times  when  cultivation  is  necessary  and  profitable, 
when  we  have  few  if  any  weeds  to  spur  us  to  the 
exertion.  This  is  apt  to  be  the  case  during  a  sum- 
mer drought  when  the  soil  is  dried  out  several 
inches  deep  and  the  weed  seeds  in  the  surface  soil 
cannot  get  moisture  enough  even  to  germinate. 
There  are  few  if  any  sections  of  the  country  where 
it  is  not  necessary  at  some  time,  during  an  average 
season,  to  cultivate  for  the  explicit  and  sole  purpose 
of  preventing  the  loss  of  soil  water.  One  season, 
however,  may  be  so  wet  that  the  cultivation  that 
prevents  weediness  is  all  that  is  necessary;  the 
next  season  may  be  so  dry  that  the  cry  of  the  crop 
is  continuous  and  loud  for  more  water,  rather 
than  for  less  weeds. 

Signs  of  the  Need  of  Cultivation  to  Save  Water.— 
It  is  not  difficult  to  tell  when  it  will  pay  to  cultivate, 
even  when  there  are  not  enough  weeds  to  justify  it 
on  that  score.  One  has  only  to  examine  the  sur- 
face soil.  If  it  is  hard,  baked,  cracked,  or  even  if 
it  has  only  a  thin  crust,  there  is  work  to  be  done. 
Soil  water  passes  off  rapidly  into  the  air  only  so 
long  as  the  surface  soil  is  compact.  If  this  is 
loosened  the  water  cannot  creep  readily  from 
grain  to  grain,  and  so  is  held  below  the  layer  of 
loose  soil. 

The  first  aim  of  the  cultivator,  then,  especially 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       165 

when  his  plants  are  trying  to  weather  a  dry 
season  should  always  be  to  keep  a  few  inches  of 
loose  soil  on  top  of  the  ground.  When  it  gets 
compacted  again,  as  it  always  does  after  a  while, 
loosen  it  again,  weeds  or  no  weeds.  Eventually  the 
loosened  soil  falls  back  into  place  and  becomes  com- 
pacted again  by  its  own  weight ;  but  one  slight  rain 
will  make  more  of  a  crust  over  it  than  two  weeks 
of  settling.  That  is  why  it  is  more  difficult  to  pre- 
serve a  soil  mulch  in  humid  regions  than  in  the 
semi-arid  sections  of  the  West.  Where  there  is 
no  rain  whatever  during  three  or  four  months 
of  the  growing  season  there  is  not  much  diffi- 
culty in  making  and  keeping  a  most  efficient 
dust  mulch.  In  the  East,  where  the  cultivation 
of  one  day  may  lose  half  its  value  because  of 
a  slight  shower  the  following  night,  it  is  a  more 
tedious  job.  However,  the  Western  man  needs  a 
better  mulch — he  has  much  less  water  to  use  and 
has  to  guard  it  jealously. 

How  Often  to  Cultivate. — There  can  be  no  rule 
as  to  the  frequency  of  cultivation  for  saving  water 
except  this:  cultivate  often  enough  to  keep  the 
surface  soil  at  least  fairly  mellow  and  free  from 
crust.  To  do  this  may  take  eight  cultivations  one 
year  and  twelve  the  next  year,  on  the  same  field. 
An  adjoining  field,  with  soil  having  a  greater  ca- 
pacity to  hold  water,  may  give  equal  results  from 
half  as  much  tillage. 

The  reliable  guides  are  the  way  the  crops  grow 
and  the  condition  of  the  soil.  When  the  corn 
leaves  begin  to  curl  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  when  the 
lower  leaves  of  the  peas  begin  to  shrivel  and  droop, 
when  the  potatoes  look  dispirited  and  the  sugar 
beets  droopy,  the  time  has  come  for  some  energetic 
work.  If  the  ground  is  hard,  loosen  it  deeply  with 


166  SOILS 

a  shovel-tooth  cultivator  and  smooth  it  off  with 
a  spike- tooth  cultivator  afterward.  Repeat  this 
with  the  latter  tool  often  enough  to  keep  a  mulch 
over  the  roots  of  the  plants  that  will  preserve 
the  coolness  and  water  that  have  been  lost  to  them 
before.  The  results  of  a  few  extra  cultivations  in 
a  dry  season,  as  seen  in  the  corn  bin  or  cotton 
basket,  are  sufficient  to  convert  any  man  to  the 
wisdom  of  mulch-tillage,  even  when  weed-tillage 
is  not  needed. 

HOW    DEEP   TO    CULTIVATE 

Within  ten  or  fifteen  years  there  has  been  a  very 
decided  movement  in  favour  of  shallow  cultivation. 
Experiments  have  shown  quite  conclusively  that 
there  is  as  much  value,  so  far  as  preventing  the 
escape  of  water  is  concerned,  in  two  or  three  inches 
of  loose,  surface  soil  as  in  four  or  five  inches.  This 
pre-supposes,  of  course,  that  the  tillage  of  prepara- 
tion— plowing  and  harrowing — has  been  thorough 
and  timely  so  that  the  soil  is  loosened  deeply  and 
pulverised  completely.  The  result  has  been  that 
many  of  the  old-fashioned,  deep-working,  hard- 
pulling  and  root-cutting  cultivators  have  been 
relegated  to  the  junk  heap,  and  the  shallow-working 
coulter  and  spike-tooth  cultivators  occupy  their 
place  in  the  tool  shed.  We  do  not  hear  so  much 
about  "plowing  out"  crops  as  formerly — they  are 
cultivated.  There  are  stfll  many  unwieldy,  plow- 
like  cultivators  in  use,  especially  in  the  cotton  belt, 
but  they  are  fast  disappearing. 

If  the  soil  has  been  thoroughly  loosened  and 
pulverised  before  the  crop  is  planted  there  is  no 
need  of  stirring  it  more  than  three  inches  deep, 
at  the  most,  after  that.  Aside  from  the  energy 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       167 

lost  in  increased  draft,  deep  cultivation  is  wasteful 
of  soil  water,  because  it  Brings  to  the  surface  a 
large  amount  of  moist  soil  which  soon  becomes 
dry.  The  moisture  in  this  soil  might  better  have 
been  left  below  where  it  could  have  been  used  by 
plants.  Moreover,  a  deep-working  cultivator 
leaves  the  soil  in  ridges,  thus  exposing  more  sur- 
face for  evaporation;  for  some  water  is  lost  from 
the  soil  even  when  it  is  covered  with  the  very  best 
mulch.  Furthermore,  the  valleys  made  by  deep 
cultivation  are  the  beginning  of  erosion. 

Deep  cultivation  may  cut  many  of  the  feeding 
roots  of  the  crop.  The  roots  of  plants  naturally 
seek  the  richest  part  of  the  soil.  The  soil  near 
the  surface  usually  contains  the  most  plant  food, 
because  so  much  soluble  plant  food  has  been  left 
there  by  the  evaporation  of  soil  water,  and  be- 
cause the  surface  soil  contains  more  humus,  more 
germ  life,  more  air  and  more  of  everything  that 
makes  for  fertility. 

In  all  ordinary  soils  the  largest  proportion  of 
feeding  roots  is  found  immediately  below  the  range 
of  cultivator  teeth,  provided  that  part  of  the  soil 
is  in  good  texture.  In  a  warm  climate  plants  root 
deeper  than  in  a  cool  climate.  Deep  cultivation 
during  the  growing  season  cuts  off  innumerable 
rootlets  and  root  hairs  that  are  foraging  in  the 
richest  places  they  can  find.  To  "plow  out"  a 
corn  field  four  or  five  inches  deep,  in  July,  is  to 
practise  root  pruning  of  a  severe  character.  Some 
farm  crops  do  not  seem  to  be  injured  appreciably 
by  this  kind  of  root  pruning,  but  none  are  benefited 
by  it,  and  some  are  injured.  Deep  tillage  may 
be  given  the  crop  early  in  the  season,  if  necessary, 
but  shallow  tillage  after  it  begins  to  shoot.  When- 
ever the  soil  becomes  hard,  as  after  a  beating  rain, 


168  SOILS 

a  deep  cultivation  may  be  needed.  Crops  that 
root  deeply,  as  fruit  trees,  can  be  tilled  more  deeply 
than  crops  that  are  shallow-rooted.  The  aim 
should  be  to  keep  the  soil  water  from  getting  above 
that  part  of  the  soil  in  which  the  roots  feed  most. 
The  safest  and  best  general  practice,  according 
to  present  information,  is  to  fit  the  land  deeply  and 
thoroughly  before  planting,  and  to  cultivate  not 
over  three  inches  deep  thereafter,  and  sometimes 
less.  A  loose,  dry  mulch  three  inches  deep  is  as 
valuable  a  water-saver  and  weed-preventer  as  one 
five  inches  deep.  However,  when  a  soil  becomes 
compact  beneath  the  surface,  as  clayey  soils  are 
very  apt  to  from  the  tramping  above,  it  is  certainly 
wise  to  stir  it  deeply. 

THE  ADVANTAGE  OF  LEVEL  CULTURE 

In  earlier  years  nearly  all  crops  were  hilled  or 
ridged  when  cultivated.  Now  there  is  a  strong 
preference  for  level  culture  whenever  practicable. 
This  preference  is  based  on  two  facts;  that  level 
culture  is  obviously  easier  and  cheaper;  and  that 
less  water  is  lost  since  it  exposes  the  minimum 
amount  of  soil  surface  to  the  air  for  evaporation. 
How  much  more  surface  is  exposed  when  the 
soil  is  left  like  this  A  than  when  it  is  left  like 
this  —  ? 

Probably  the  chief  reason  why  the  farmers  and 
gardeners  of  a  generation  ago  hilled  their  corn,  pota- 
toes, and  beans,  ridged  their  cotton  and  planted  their 
onions,  carrots,  and  parsnips  in  raised  beds,  more 
than  at  present,  is  because  farm  soils  were  not  then 
as  well  drained  as  they  are  now,  there  being 
comparatively  little  under-drainage  at  that  time. 
There  are  but  two  occasions  for  ridging  land: 


HARROWING,  CULTIVATING       169 

when  the  soil  is  poorly  drained,  and  when  the  crop 
needs  banking  to  secure  a  special  result,  as  celery 
to  blanch  the  stalks,  or  potatoes  to  protect  the 
tubers  that  crowd  out  of  the  ground  from  being 
sun-scalded.  If  potatoes  are  planted  deeply  enough, 
however,  all  the  tubers  will  form  below  the  surface 
and  hilling  is  unnecessary. 

In  the  Southern  States  it  is  often  thought  neces- 
sary to  use  two  long  narrow  blades  or  "sweeps" 
which  cut  large  weeds  just  below  the  surface  and 
ridge  the  soil  somewhat.  In  the  same  section  a 
cultivator  with  one  broad  blade,  quite  similar  to  a 
plow,  is  used  to  throw  enough  soil  over  the  large 
weeds  at  the  base  of  the  corn  or  cotton  plants  to 
smother  them.  This  leaves  the  plants  on  rather 
high  ridges.  It  is  extremely  doubtful  if  the  practice 
is  wise  except,  perhaps,  on  the  heavier  and  wetter 
soils. 

If  corn,  tomatoes,  beans,  cucumbers,  melons, 
okra,  peppers,  cotton,  and  other  heat-loving  plants 
are  grown  upon  land  that  is  inclined  to  be  some- 
what cold  and  wet  it  may  pay  to  hill  or  ridge  them ; 
but  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  on  soils  that  are 
even  fairly  well  drained  this  practice  is  a  disad- 
vantage. Very  wet  soils,  especially  creek  bottom 
land  and  meadow  muck,  are  often  cultivated  in 
ridges,  beds,  or  hills  with  excellent  results.  In  all 
cases  the  ridges  should  be  no  higher  than  is  nec- 
essary to  accomplish  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
made.  Not  only  should  hilling  and  ridging  be 
dispensed  with  on  soils  that  are  rather  deficient  in 
moisture,  but  also  the  surface  should  be  left  as 
level  as  possible,  by  using  a  shallow-working,  narrow- 
tooth  cultivator.  In  a  wet  season  it  may  pay  to  use 
a  deep-working,  ridge-forming  cultivator,  on  a  soil 
that  is  normally  so  dry  that  level  culture  is  best  for 


170  SOILS 

it.  Likewise  it  may  be  wise  to  use  a  ridge-making 
cultivator  in  early  spring  on  some  soils,  to  warm 
and  dry  them,  and  replace  this  with  a  shallow- 
working  cultivator  after  the  crop  is  well  started  and 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  is  higher. 

PREVENTING    LOSS    OF   WATER   FROM    SOD 

How  to  prevent  the  loss  of  soil  water  in  sod  land 
is  a  more  difficult  problem,  but  something  can 
be  done.  A  dressing  of  manure  not  only  en- 
riches the  soil  but  also  acts  as  a  mulch  to  it, 
preventing  much  water  from  escaping  from  the 
oare  places  between  the  plants.  The  gist  of  the 
whole  philosophy  of  treating  sod  land,  so  as  to  get 
full  benefit  from  the  water  in  it,  is  to  have  no  bare 
or  unshaded  places.  If  the  grass  plants  stand  so 
thickly  that  all  the  surface  is  shaded,  most  of  the 
water  lost  from  the  soil  passes  off  into  the  air  through 
the  plants,  much  to  our  profit.  But  if  the  meadow 
is  getting  worn  out,  and  needs  reseeding,  a  large 
part  of  the  soil  water  is  lost  by  evaporation  from 
the  bare  places  between  the  tufts  of  grass.  Weeds, 
daisies,  dock,  thistles  and  the  like  may  take  pos- 
session of  these  bare  places  that  appear  in  the  sod 
ground  when  the  grass  roots  begin  to  get  weak; 
then  the  loss  of  water  is  greater.  In  handling  sod 
land  so  as  to  get  the  most  value  from  the  water 
in  it,  endeavour  to  force  most  of  this  water 
through  the  grass  plants,  by  keeping  the  turf 
dense  and  clean  through  occasional  plowing  and 
reseeding,  and  by  top-dressing.  It  is  quite  possible 
to  have  a  sod  too  thick,  the  result  being  that  many 
weak  grass  stalks  of  poor  quality  are  produced, 
but  turf  that  is  too  thick  is  not  nearly  as  common  as 
turf  that  is  too  thin. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


ROLLING,    PLANKING,    HOEING 

FARMERS  have  long  noticed  that  grain 
sprouts  quickest  wherever  the  horses'  hoofs 
have  trod.  Gardeners  have  observed  the 
benefits  of  walking  above  newly  planted  vegetable 
seeds.  They  have  noticed,  also,  that  the  soil  on 
the  bottom  of  the  hoof  track  or  foot  print  is  more 
moist  than  adjacent  soil.  The  conclusion  has 
been  that  compacting  the  surface  soil  makes  it 
more  moist;  this  view  is  held  by  many  farmers. 
Rolling,  which  had  its  origin  in  these  observations, 
is  practised  by  many  with  the  idea  that  it  increases 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil. 

ROLLING   TO    ASSIST   GERMINATION 

The  chief  object  of  rolling  on  many  soils  is  to 
increase  the  amount  of  water  supplied  to  the  ger- 
minating seeds,  but  rolling  does  not  actually  in- 
crease the  total  amount  of  water  in  the  soil;  it 
diminishes  it.  Rolling  compacts  the  surface  soil, 
bringing  the  particles  closer  together  so  that  film 
water  passes  upward  more  readily  and  is  lost  by 
evaporation.  But  while  passing  upward  much  of 
it  comes  into  contact  with  the  seeds  and  is  absorbed 
by  them;  thus  the  seeds  are  supplied  with  more 
moisture  and  germinate  quicker  and  better,  even 
though  it  is  at  the  expense  of  a  loss  of  water  to  the 
soil.  Since  so  much  of  the  success  of  a  crop 

171 


172  SOILS 

depends  upon  quick  germination,  we  can  afford, 
on  some  soils  and  in  some  seasons,  to  sacrifice 
a  good  deal  of  water  for  the  sake  of  gaining  this 
important  result. 

The  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hoof -mark  or  foot- 
print is  more  moist  than  the  surrounding  soil  be- 
cause it  is  more  compact  and  losing  more  water  by 
evaporation,  having  no  mulch  above  it.  The  soil 
in  a  field  that  has  been  rolled  is  more  moist  on  top 
than  if  it  had  not  been  rolled,  but  the  soil  below  the 
compacted  portion,  from  five  to  twenty  inches 
deep,  is  much  dryer  than  it  would  have  been  had 
the  surface  been  left  loose.  In  other  words,  the 
upper  five  or  more  inches  of  soil  have  been  made 
more  moist,  by  rolling,  at  the  expense  of  the  soil 
beneath.  Within  twenty-four  hours  after  rolling  this 
difference  can  be  noticed.  Part  of  the  loss  of  mois- 
ture from  rolled  soil  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  surface 
is  left  very  level  and  smooth,  so  that  it  offers  less 
obstruction  to  the  wind.  The  velocity  at  which  the 
wind  passes  over  rolled  ground  may  be  nearly 
twice  as  great  as  on  rough,  unrolled  ground.  This 
means  that  much  more  moisture  is  sucked  from  the 
soil  by  the  wind. 

When  Rolling  to  Assist  Germination  is  Practicable. 
-The  farmer  must  decide  whether  the  gain  from 
rolling,  in  better  germination,  is  greater  than 
the  loss,  in  the  reduction  of  the  total  amount 
of  water  available  for  the  growth  of  the  crop. 
That  depends  upon  the  rainfall  and  upon  the 
moisture-holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  Rolling 
for  the  purpose  of  assisting  germination  is  of 
greatest  value  on  the  lighter,  looser  and  coarse- 
grained soils,  especially  the  sands  and  sandy 
loams.  These  are  so  open  that  the  air  may  circu- 
late through  the  surface  soil  quite  freely,  drying  it 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND  HOEING  173 

and  stealing  water  that  the  seeds  need.  They 
are  so  loose  and  coarse-grained  that  the  seeds  are 
not  sufficiently  in  contact  with  the  soil  to  absorb 
enough  water  from  it.  Rolling  very  light  soils  is 
not  only  an  aid  to  germination,  but  may  also  in- 
crease their  capacity  to  hold  water,  providing  they 
are  covered  with  a  mulch  afterward.  It  is  rarely 
necessary  or  practicable  to  roll  clay  soils  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  more  moisture  to  assist  ger- 
mination, but  they  are  often  rolled  to  accomplish 
other  results. 

Making  a  Mulch  after  Rolling. — Most  of  the 
rolling  now  done  is  on  land  that  has  been  seeded 
to  grain  or  grass,  and  it  is  done  immediately  after 
the  seed  has  been  harrowed  in.  In  a  majority 
of  cases  the  surface  is  left  compact,  as  it  comes  from 
the  roller,  and  remains  so  through  the  season.  This 
is  a  waste  of  water.  A  way  to  secure  all  the  benefit 
of  rolling  and  avoid  all  the  disadvantages  is  to 
make  a  shallow  mulch  on  the  surface  after  rolling. 
Rolling  compacts  from  five  to  twenty-four  inches 
of  soil ;  if  the  upper  inch  or  two  are  loosened  into 
a  mulch,  the  water  drawn  up  from  below  as  a 
result  is  prevented  from  escaping  and  most  of  the 
seeds  get  the  benefit  of  it  as  well.  This  means  that 
whenever  the  loss  of  water  by  rolling  is  a  detri- 
ment, as  on  light  dry  soils,  the  roller  should  be 
followed  by  a  very  shallow- working  harrow,  as  a 
spike-tooth  harrow  with  the  teeth  slanting  back- 
ward, or  a  weeder. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  a  brush  drag  is  used 
for  this  purpose.  This  is  usually  made  of  six  or 
eight  small  white  birch  trees,  twelve  to  eighteen 
feet  long.  The  butt  ends  of  these  are  fastened 
into  a  2  x  4  inch  end  piece,  at  such  a  distance 
apart  that  the  trees  lie  side  by  side  and  cover 


174  SOILS 

an  area  of  ground  about  eight  to  ten  feet  wide. 
When  dragged  over  a  newly  seeded  and  rolled 
field  the  tough  twiggy  branches  stir  the  surface 
soil  thoroughly  to  tne  depth  of  one  to  two 
inches,  making  a  very  effective  shallow  mulch 
after  a  heavy  rolling.  It  is  better  to  defer  making 
the  mulch  for  twenty-four  hours  after  rolling,  by 
which  time  the  moisture  will  have  come  to  the 
surface. 

Other  Illustrations  of  the  Principle  of  Rolling. — 
The  practice  of  making  a  mulch  after  rolling  sowed 
land  is  not  common.  Most  farmers  who  roll  their 
seeding  leave  it  so.  When  rainfall  is  liberal  and 
the  soil  is  fairly  heavy  and  retentive,  so  that  the 
saving  of  water  is  not  a  first  consideration,  this  is 
probably  the  best  plan.  But  if  the  summer  rain- 
fall is  insufficient  and  the  soil  quite  open,  it  will 
usually  pay  to  harrow  or  brush  afterward.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  practice  of  making  a  mulch  after 
rolling,  or  otherwise  compacting  land  that  is  to  be 
put  into  hoed  crops,  is  necessarily  very  common. 
In  fitting  sandy  soils  it  is  well  to  roll  them  before 
the  last  harrowing. 

In  garden  operations  there  are  numerous  and 
forceful  illustrations  of  the  value  of  establishing  a 
mulch  above  compacted  soil.  When  I  was  little 
more  than  half  as  high  as  a  hoe  handle,  and 
helped  my  father  plant  corn,  I  used  to  wonder  why 
he  patted  down  the  earth  above  the  kernels  and  then 
scattered  a  hoeful  of  soil  loosely  on  top  of  this. 
The  gardener  who  makes  a  round  melon  hill, 
patted  smooth  on  top  and  covered  with  loose  soil, 
and  who  walks  on  his  row  of  beets  and  then  covers 
his  tracks;  the  fruit  grower  who  stamps  the  earth 
around  the  roots  of  the  fruit  tree  he  is  planting  but 
leaves  it  loose  on  top;  the  florist  who  presses  his 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND   HOEING  175 

cineraria  or  petunia  seeds  into  the  soil  with  a  board 
— all  are  illustrating,  on  a  small  scale,  the_,phil- 
osqphy  of  rolling. 

OTHER   BENEFITS    OF    ROLLING 

The  chief  purpose  of  rolling,  in  ordinary  farm 
practice,  is  to  increase  the  supply  of  moisture  for 
the  seeds,  but  it  may  serve  other  useful  purposes, 
or  it  may  be  used  for  these  alone  and  not  for  mois- 
ture. Rolling  to  crush  lumps  is  a  profitable  and 
common  practice  on  soiTs~~which  become  cloddy. 
Great  care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  roll  these 
soils  when  they  are  wet,  as  they  are  then  cemented 
into  a  hard  crust  by  heavy  rolling.  There  is  a  time 
between  wetness  and  dryness  when  the  clods 
crush  easily;  this  is  the  time  for  rolling.  The 
seeds  are  brought  into  close  contact  with  the  soil 
by  rolling,  while  they  might  lie  dry  and  unre- 
sponsive among  the  clods.  Rolling  heavy  soils  in 
spring  after  seeding  is  beneficial  if  the  season  is 
dry,  but  injurious  if  the  season  is  wet. 

The  benefits  from  crushing  clods  lie  not  only  in 
the  improvement  of  the  soil  conditions  as  affecting 
germination,  but  also  in  the  liberation  of  the  plant 
food  that  has  been  locked  up  in  the  lumps.  Rol- 
ling heavy  soils,  when  the  chief  object  is  to  crush 
clods,  is  always  attended  with  more  or  less  un- 
certainty as  regards  its  influence  on  the  moisture 
of  the  soil;  so  it  is  usually  preferable  in  such  cases 
to  break  the  lumps  with  a  planker  or  clod-crusher 
instead  of  running  the  risKs  of  rolling.  An  in- 
cidental benefit  of  rolling,  on  some  soils,  is  that  it 
presses  all  small  stones  on  the  surface  into  the 
ground,  so  that  they  will  not  interfere  with 
harvesting. 


176  SOILS 

Rolling  May  Warm  the  Soil. — Rolling  has  a 
marked  effect  upon  the  temperature  of  the  soil. 
It  makes  it  warmer  if  the  weather  is  clear  and 
warm,  but  colder  if  the  weather  is  cloudy  and  cold. 
King  recorded  an  average  difference  of  nearly  three 
degrees  between  the  rolled  and  the  unrolled  soil 
of  the  same  field  at  a  depth  of  three  inches,  the 
rolled  soil  being  warmer.  The  soil  becomes 
colder  during  cold  weather,  tnd  warmer  during 
warm  weather  than  if  it  were  [rolled,  since  on  the 
unrolled  field  there  is  more  surface  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  more  firmly  a  soil  is  packed  on  the  sur- 
face the  better  does  it  conduct  heat;  so  that  during 
the  night  and  during  cold  rainy  weather  the  rolled 
land  is  colder  at  the  surface  than  the  unrolled  land. 

Incidental  Benefits  of  Rolling. — Incidental  bene- 
fits of  rolling  in  some  cases  are  that  it  puts  the  soil 
into  such  a  condition  that  other  tools  can  handle 
it  more  effectively;  it  leaves  the  surface  in  better 
shape  for  marking;  it  smooths  the  soil  so  that 
small  seeds  may  be  distributed  over  it  more  evenly. 
Fall-sown  grass,  clover  and  grain  are  often  rolled 
in  very  early  spring  to  lessen  the  likelihood  of 
injury  from  heaving  by  freezing  and  thawing  and 
to  make  the  surface  smoother  for  mowing.  These, 
however,  are  insignificant  as  compared  with  rolling 
for  moisture  and  for  crushing  lumps. 

From  the  foregoing  statements  it  is  evident  that 
rolling  may  be  beneficial  or  detrimental,  according 
to  the  soil  and  the  season;  it  is  a  practice  that 
must  be  used  with  discretion.  In  general,  it 
may  be  said  that  rolling  accomplishes  two  very 
useful  purposes;  it  increases  the  water-holding 
capacity  of  light  soils  and  aids  the  germination  of 
seeds  in  them;  and  it  crushes  the  lumps  of  cloddy 
soils.  The  tendency  is  to  restrict  the  use  of  the 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND  HOEING  177 

roller  to  the  first  purpose  on  light  soils,  where  firm- 
ing the  soil  is  the  chief  result  sought;  and  to  use  the 
planker  for  the  latter  purpose  on  heavy  soils, 
where  fining  the  soil  is  the  end  desired.  More 
rolling  is  done  on  spring  sown  grain  after  the  seed 
is  harrowed  in  than  for  any  other  purpose. .  If  the 
season  is  dry  this  gives  excellent  results;  if  it  is 
\vet  and  the  soil  is  somewhat  clayey  the  texture  of 
the  soil  may  be  injured  and  a  crust  formed.  If  a 
cloddy  clay  soil  is  rolled  after  having  been  plowed 
when  it  is  too  wet  the  clods  are  likely  to  be  pushed 
into  the  ground  instead  of  being  pulverised.  In 
rolling,  as  in  plowing,  everything  depends  upon 
*'  catching  the  soil  at  the  right  time." 


THE    KINDS    OF    ROLLERS 


When  the  main  reason  for  rolling  is  to  compact 
the  soil,  the  roller  should  be  as  heavy  as  is  ex- 
pedient. The  larger  it  is  in  diameter  the  heavier 
it  should  be.  It  is  well  to  have  a  roller  of  large 
diameter  for  it  pulls  easier  in  proportion  to  its 
weight.  For  ordinary  purposes  a  roller  should  weigh 
at  least  1,500  Ibs.  Wooden  rollers,  which  are 
usually  made  in  one,  two  or  three  sections,  are 
cheap  and  quite  effective,  although  many  of  them 
are  light.  Their  rolling  surface  soon  becomes 
rough,  thus  increasing  the  draft.  Iron  or  steel 
rollers,  which  are  usually  in  more  than  two  sections, 
last  longer,  do  better  work  and  pull  easier.  The 
more  sections  a  roller  has  the  less  it  furrows  the 
ground  in  turning  around.  Some  iron  rollers  are 
made  with  teeth  or  with  corrugated  surfaces  or 
blades;  these  are  claimed  to  be  more  effective  in 
breaking  lumps,  but  they  often  clog  badly,  thus  in- 
creasing the  draft  and  decreasing  the  effectiveness. 


178  SOILS 

PLANKING 

Closely  allied  to  the  roller  in  its  effect  upon  the 
soil  is  the  tool  variously  known  as  a  planker,  clod- 
crusher,  smoother  and  sometimes  as  a  drag;,  boat 

O 

float  or  plank  harrow.  The  terms  "drag,"  *  float," 
and  "boat,"  however,  are  more  properly  applied 
to  the  tool  known  as  a  "stone  boat"  in  the  East, 
which  is  about  2x5  feet,  smooth  on  the  bottom,  not 
corrugated,  and  which  is  used,  not  for  mellowing 
the  soil  but  for  hauling  stones  from  the  field,  plows 
and  harrows  to  the  field  and  similar  work.  The 
planker  is  usually  home-made  and  therefore  is  not 
uniform  in  construction.  A  few  cultivators  have 
planker  or  clod-crushing  attachments. 

Nearly  all  home-made  plankers  are  made  of  two 
hardwood  planks  about  2x8  inches  and  6  to  8  feet 
long.  Notches  about  two  inches  deep  and  eight 
inches  apart  are  made  in  each  of  these  bed  pieces 
and  into  these  are  nailed  or  bolted  2-inch  planks 
about  six  feet  long,  each  plank  overlapping  the 
one  next  to  it,  like  clapboards.  Or  several  planks 
may  be  merely  overlapped  and  bolted  together. 
Some  prefer  to  have  a  space  of  several  inches  be- 
tween the  planks.  This  is  pulled  broadside  and 
exerts  a  powerful  pulverising  and  smoothing  in- 
fluence on  the  surface,  especially  if  weighted  with 
a  driver  or  stone  ballast. 

The  planker  has  very  little  compacting  effect,  as 
compared  with  the  roller,  because  its  much  lighter 
weignt  is  distributed  over  many  square  feet  of  sur- 
face; while  all  the  weight  of  the  roller  rests  upon 
the  narrow  line  where  its  curved  surface  touches 
the  soil.  The  planker  is  distinctly  a  clod-crushing 
and  levelling  implement.  In  this  respect  it  resem- 
bles the  harrows  and  is  very  properly  called  a 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND  HOEING  179 

plank  harrow.  The  planker  is  now  used  where 
the  roller  was  formerly — to  crush  the  lumps  on 
heavy  loams  andcTay  soils  that  do  not  need  com- 
pacting. On  tenacious  soils  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  use  the  disk  harrow  after  plowing,  fol- 
lowed by  the  planker,  the  Acme  or  spike-tooth 
harrow  and  then  the  planker  again,  alternating 
harrowing  and  planking  the  soil  until  it  is  brought 
into  the  right  condition.  The  last  turn  should  be 
with  the  planker,  as  it  leaves  the  surface  mellow 
and  smooth,  so  that  fine  seeds  may  be  sown  or  the 
land  marked  out  for  planting. 

The  planker  breaks  up  many  of  the  small  lumps 
that  slip  through  harrow  teeth  and  presses  others 
into  the  ground  where  they  can  be  torn  out  and 
broken  to  pieces  by  the  subsequent  harrowing. 
The  planker  is  one  of  the  most  useful  tools  that  any 
farmeT^can  have,  especially  if  the  soil  is  somewhat 
heavy.  It  is  never  used  to  compact  the  soil  around 
the  seeds,  as  a  roller,  but  is  always  used  like  a 
harrow — as  a  pulveriser  and  leveller  after  plowing. 
It  is  superior  for  this  purpose  to  the  roller;  it 
should  be  used  in  place  of  the  roller  in  all  cases  but 
two;  upon  light  soils  which  need  compacting  and 
upon  seeding. 

HOEING 

In  primitive  agriculture  the  plow  and  the  hoe 
were  about  the  only  tillage  tools  used.  Of  late 
years  the  hoe  has  been  used  less  and  less  as  an 
implement  of  tillage.  It  has  been  forced  aside  by 
the  increasing  necessity  for  doing  as  much  of  the 
work  on  the  farm  as  possible  with  horse  power. 
The  harrow,  the  cultivator  and  the  weeder  now  do 
much  of  the  work  that  was  formerly  done  with  the 


180  SOILS 

hoe  and  do  it  much  better.  It  is  noticeable  that 
where  hand  labour  is  cheap,  as  in  parts  of  the  South, 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  farm  tillage  is  done 
with  the  hoe  man  where  labour  is  dear,  as  it  is  in 
most  parts  of  the  North  and  West.  A  negro  and 
a  hoe  is  one  of  the  typical  scenes  of  the  South. 
It  is  likely  that  the  hoe  will  become  of  still  less 
importance  in  farming,  as  we  learn  better  ways  of 
circumventing  the  weeds  before  they  are  big 
and  as  we  are  forced  to  perfect  other  means 
of  growing  crops  with  as  little  hand  labour  as 
possible. 

Aside  from  its  use  as  an  aid  to  planting,  which 
is  constantly  lessened  by  the  increasing  use  of  plant- 
ing machines,  the  hoe  will  always  be  useful  for  two 
purposes ;  to  kill  large  weeds  that  have  escaped  the 
cultivator  and  to  stir  the  soil  close  to  the  plants 
where  the  cultivator  teeth  cannot  work  without 
danger  of  injuring  the  plants.  The  hoe  is  a  very 
poor  tool  for  making  a  mulch;  it  stirs  the  ground 
deeply  in  some  places,  lightly  in  others  and  usually 
parts  of  the  surface  are  left  wholly  undisturbed,  or 
are  raised  slightly  by  the  passing  of  the  blade  be- 
neath them.  It  does  not  lift,  crumble  and  invert 
the  soil,  as  do  cultivator  teeth,  unless  the  soil  is  very 
mellow  and  dry.  As  an  implement  for  conserving 
moisture,  therefore,  the  hoe  should  be  used  only 
where  a  cultivator  cannot  be  used;  that  is,  close 
to  the  plants. 

Hoeing  to  Kill  Weeds. — For  killing  large  weeds 
the  hoe  has  no  equal,  but  this  is  an  expensive  way 
of  killing  them.  Most  of  them  can  be  killed  when 
very  small  by  frequent  shallow  cultivation.  There 
are  various  styles  of  cultivator  teeth  and  attach- 
ments to  cultivators  that  are  designed  to  skim  be- 
low the  surface  and  cut  off  large  weeds.  These 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND  HOEING  181 

wings,  sweeps  and  other  special  weed-killing  de- 
vices should  be  a  part  of  every  farm  equipment; 
if  used  in  time  they  should  reduce  the  area  that 
needs  hoeing  to  the  parts  adjacent  to  the  rows. 
Here  is  where  the  hoe  must  be  used,  especially  if 
it  is  found  desirable  to  ridge  the  rows.  With  some 
crops  the  weeds  that  start  between  the  plants  can 
be  killed  when  very  small  by  using  the  spike- 
tooth  harrow  or  weeder  over  the  entire  surface. 
But  after  the  plants  are  too  large  for  this  it  is  a  strug- 
gle to  keep  down  the  weeds  in  the  rows.  They 
get  a  start  close  to  the  plants  and  gradually  en- 
croach upon  the  cultivated  area.  It  is  then  time 
to  "cut  out"  the  rows;  and  it  is  likely  the  work- 
man will  have  to  pull  some  of  them  by  hand,  so 
closely  are  their  roots  and  stems  entwined  with 
the  crop. 

Good  and  Poor  Hoeing. — The  easiest  and  most 
rapid  way  to  hoe  is  to  barely  skim  the  ground 
with  the  blade  at  a  very  slignt  angle  to  the  sur- 
face, scarcely  disturbing  the  soil,  but  cutting  off 
the  weeds.  The  hardest  and  slowest  way  to  hoe 
is  to  strike  the  blade  into  the  ground  at  a  sharp 
angle,  lifting  and  turning  two  or  three  inches  of 
soil.  The  former  is  preferable  on  the  lighter  and 
looser  soils,  the  latter  on  the  heavier  soils  and 
especially  when  the  ground  about  the  plants  has 
become  compacted  by  rains  or  tramping.  Some 
men  use  the  noe  as  they  would  a  pick;  it  does  little 
good  in  this  way  so  far  as  conserving  moisture  is 
concerned.  As  a  general  rule,  hoeing,  like  culti- 
vating, should  be  deeper  in  spring  than  in  summer, 
and  for  the  same  reasons. 

It  is  as  much  an  art  to  hoe  well  as  to  cultivate 
well,  and  sometimes  just  as  much  depends  upon  it. 
Not  one  man  in  ten  gets  as  much  out  of  a  noe  as 


182  SOILS 

there  is  in  it.  It  is  not  enough  to  hoe  merely  to 
kill  weeds,  it  should  also  save  soil  water  and  secure 
all  the  other  benefits  of  tillage.  This  means  that 
the  soil  should  be  stirred  around  the  plants  to  a 
nearly  uniform  depth,  not  merely  stabbed  deeply 
in  places  and  a  thin  layer  of  loose  soil  scattered  over 
the  unstirred  soil  between.  It  also  means  that  the 
surface  should  be  left  nearly  level,  not  in  hog- 
troughs.  Many  farmers  who  are  careful  enough 
with  their  cultivating  are  slovenly  with  their  hoeing. 
Market  gardeners,  however,  have  learned  that  it 

Eays  to  put  as  thorough  a  man  at  work  with  the 
oe  as  with  the  cultivator, 

Styles  of  Blades. — The  blade  of  the  hoe  used  in 
general  farming  does  not  vary  much  in  size  and 
shape.  The  essential  thing  is  to  keep  it  sharp  and 
bright,  which  it  will  not  be  if  hung  up  in  the  apple 
tree  all  winter.  The  business  hoe  makes  frequent 
visits  to  the  grindstone.  As  a  general  rule  the  blade 
on  a  new  hoe  is  too  broad  to  work  handily;  when 
it  gets  worn  down  an  inch  or  two,  it  cuts  the 
soil  easier  and  better.  Hoe  blades  having  rounded 
teeth  on  the  cutting  edge  are  preferred  by  some. 
Some  gardeners  have  many  hoes  of  different  sizes 
and  shapes,  some  of  them  with  blades  only  an  inch 
wide  for  picking  out  weeds  between  vegetables; 
or  with  the  handle  inserted  between  two  blades  of 
different  widths.  Others  are  shaped  like  a  narrow 
triangle;  or  heart-shape,  with  the  lower  end 
notched;  or  with  the  blade  reduced  to  the  merest 
hook,  so  that  a  stray  weed  can  be  tweaked  from 
the  ground  with  a  twist  of  the  wrist.  The  handles 
of  some  of  these  aristocratic  hoes  are  knobbed  on 
the  end  and  variously  curved.  This  is  too  gingerly 
work  for  most  of  us.  The  old-style  hoe  blade, 
about  three  and  one-half  inches  by  six  inches, 


63.     A  CLODDY  SOIL  THAT  WOULD  BE  BENEFITED  BY  ROLLING 

If  the  lumps  are  crushed,  the  soil  fits  tighter  around  the  seeds,  and  there  is  more  feeding 
surface  for  the  roots 


64.    A  FOUR-SECTION  IRON  ROLLER  WEIGHTED 
The  more  sections  a  roller  has  the  less  it  cuts  into  the  ground  in  turning 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND  HOEING  183 

answers  every  purpose  when  used  with  timeliness 
and  thoroughness. 

MISCELLANEOUS    HAND    TOOLS 

There  is  an  almost  endless  variety  of  hand  tillage 
tools  designed  to  be  used  when  the  rows  are  too 
close  together  to  admit  of  horse  tillage  or  for  work- 
ing close  to  the  plants.  These  are  of  far  greater 
relative  importance  in  gardening,  especially  in 
market  gardening,  than  in  general  farming,  be- 
cause gardening  is  usually  conducted  under  more 
intensive  culture  than  general  farming.  Wheel 
hoes,  hand  cultivators,  scuffle  hoes,  hand  weeders 
and  the  like  are  indispensable  in  commercial  or 
home  gardens,  but  rarely  needful  on  farms  where 
staple  crops  are  grown,  because  these  must  be 
grown  with  as  little  hand-labour  as  possible  in  order 
to  make  them  pay.  Moreover,  the  hand  tools  can 
be  used  to  best  advantage  only  on  soil  that  is 
exceedingly  mellow  and  free  from  stones — a  con- 
dition that  many  farms  cannot  meet.  In  short, 
they  are  tools  for  intensive  culture;  hence  they  are 
of  greater  value  to  the  gardener,  who  is  forced  to 
locate  very  near  his  market  on  valuable  land,  and 
who  must  adopt  intensive  culture  in  order  to  make 
the  business  pay,  than  for  the  farmer  who  grows 
staple  crops,  and  who  can  locate  further  from  the 
market  on  cheaper  land  where  such  intensive 
methods  are  not  needed. 

It  is  noticeable  that  even  in  gardening  operations 
the  tendency  is  more  and  more  to  dispense  with 
hand  tools.  Crops  that  were  formerly  planted  in 
rows  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  apart,  so  that  tillage 
had  to  be  done  by  hand,  are  now  frequently  planted 
in  rows  twenty-eight  or  thirty  inches  apart  so  that 


184  SOILS 

the  cultivator  may  run  between  them.  Some 
horses  have  a  mathematical  eye  and  will  keep  their 
feet  between  rows  two  feet  apart  without  leading; 
and  the  spike-tooth  cultivator  can  be  narrowed  to 
work  between  these  rows,  thus  saving  much  wheel 
hoeing  and  hand  hoeing.  It  is  harder  and  much 
slower  work  to  push  a  wheel  or  scuffle  hoe  than  to 
follow  a  cultivator.  There  are  conditions,  however, 
when  close  planting  may  be  desirable,  as  in  the 
home  garden  or  in  market  gardens  close  to  towns, 
or  for  certain  crops  that  thrive  best  when  the 
plants  partially  shade  each  other,  as  onions  and  root 
crops. 

Hand  Cultivators. — Nearly  all  hand-tillage  tools 
beside  hoes  may  be  classified  as  hand  cultivators, 
scuffle  hoes  or  scarifiers,  and  hand  weeders.  Hand 
cultivators,  erroneously  called  wheel-hoes,  are  of  a 
great  variety  of  patterns,  but  all  attempt  to  do  the 
work  of  a  cultivator  on  a  small  scale.  The  larger 
the  wheel  and  the  wider  the  tire  the  easier  it  over- 
rides obstacles.  Those  with  two  wheels  are 
steadier,  and  also  useful  for  straddling  the  row  and 
cultivating  on  both  sides.  Several  styles  of  inter- 
changeable teeth  are  usually  sent  with  each  tool, 
including  spike  teeth,  coulter  teeth,  hillers  or 
ridging  sweeps  and  a  large  furrowing  shovel.  A 
hand  cultivator  does  excellent  work  in  mellow  soil ; 
it  is  one  of  the  most  serviceable  of  gardening  tools. 
Many  prefer  it  to  the  scuffle  hoe  for  tilling  onions, 
carrots,  radishes,  lettuce  and  other  closely  planted 
crops. 

Scuffle  Hoes. — These  are  of  service  chiefly 
between  rows  planted  less  than  fifteen  inches 
apart,  as  onions,  carrots  and  the  like.  They 
are  made  in  various  styles,  but  all  have  a  single 
blade  which  is  pushed  with  a  jerky  motion  along 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND  HOEING  185 

the  ground,  cutting  from  one-half  inch  to  one 
inch  below  the  surface.  The  blade  varies  from 
half  an  inch  to  four  inches  in  diameter  and  is 
rectangular,  crescent  or  looped.  The  style  most 
commonly  used  is  attached  to  a  long  straight  handle. 
A  better  style  for  some  purposes  is  attached  behind 
a  wheel,  thus  becoming  in  reality  a  wheel  hoe. 
The  handle  style  is  better  after  the  tops  of  the 
plants  begin  to  lean  toward  the  middle  of  the  row. 
The  scuffle  hoe,  like  the  common  hoe,  is  a  poor 
tool  for  making  a  mulch,  but  a  most  excellent  tool 
for  killing  weeds.  It  barely  skims  the  ground, 
cutting  off  weeds  just  below  the  surface  and  run- 
ning very  close  to  the  row;  but  the  soil  is  not  in- 
verted or  loosened  much.  Very  often  it  is  simply 
sliced.  An  excellent  plan  for  tilling  close  planted 
crops  is  to  alternate  the  hand  cultivator  and  the 
scuffle  hoe.  They  complement  one  another;  the 
former  makes  a  mulch,  but  some  of  the  larger 
weeds  may  slip  through  its  teeth;  the  latter  cuts 
off  the  weeds,  but  is  a  poor  mulch-making  tool. 

In  addition  to  these  larger  hand  tools  there  are 
many  kinds  of  hand  weeders  for  even  finer  work. 
Some  are  patterned  after  the  original  hand  weeder, 
—the  outspread  fingers.  Others  are  scuffle  hoes 
with  a  small  blade  and  short  handle.  Where  it  is 
necessary  to  do  much  hand  weeding  close  to  the 
plants,  and  it  sometimes  is  in  market  gardening, 
these  little  tillage  tools  will  save  the  fingers  and 
facilitate  the  work. 

SELECTING    FARM    TOOLS 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  tillage  tools,  a  word 
about  the  selection  and  care  of  farm  tools  in  general 
may  not  be  amiss.  The  first  cost  of  farm  tools  is 


186  SOILS 

high  and  they  lose  from  5  to  25  per  cent,  of  their 
valuation  every  year,  even  with  the  best  of  care. 
They  are  a  very  expensive  part  of  the  farm  equip- 
ment, more  expensive  in  proportion  to  their  utility 
than  almost  any  other  item  in  farm  management. 
It  is  business  policy  to  get  along  with  just  as  few 
tools  as  possible.  Many  American  farmers  have 
too  many.  Some  men  seem  to  have  a  sort  of 
mania  for  collecting  everything  new  or  unique  in 
the  way  of  tools.  They  lie  around  beneath  the 
apple  trees,  back  of  the  woodshed  and  beneath  the 
eaves  of  the  overcrowded  tool  shed,  rapidly  falling 
into  disuse,  then  into  rustiness  and  finally  into 
rottenness.  It  is  an  expensive  pastime. 

Every  tool  that  is  not  used  represents  just  so 
much  capital,  not  tied  up,  but  wasted.  I  know  a 
farmer  wno  has  over  twenty-five  kinds  of  plows  and 
harrows,  yet  he  uses  but  six  or  seven  in  the  work  of 
his  farm  and  finds  these  sufficient.  He  has  at 
least  $600  tied  up  in  tools  that  he  rarely  uses  and 
could  get  along  without  just  as  well.  This  is  not 
business.  The  first  cost  of  the  few  tools  that  are 
absolutely  necessary  is  large  enough  and  their 
depreciation  rapid  enough,  without  adding  the 
weight  of  tools  that  are  not  needed.  It  is  all  right 
to  try  new  tools  if  it  can  be  afforded,,  but  most 
people  had  better  stick  to  the  few  tools  that  they 
have  found  necessary  for  satisfactory  results. 

A  Variety  oj  Tools  Needed. — These  remarks 
about  the  common  and  needless  waste  on  American 
farms  because  of  a  superfluity  of  tools  are  not 
meant  to  deny  that  a  considerable  variety  of  tools 
are  needed  on  most  farms.  A  good  farmer,  like 
a  good  mechanic,  has  a  tool  for  every  purpose,  the 
best  one  to  accomplish  a  certain  specific  result  in 
handling  the  soil  or  crop,  not  one  that  is  fairly 


65.     A  THREE-SECTION  IRON  ROLLER 

Iron  rollers  are  more  efficient  and  more  lasting  than  wooden  rollers  and  do  not  clog  as 
much.    They  should  weigh  not  less  than  1,000  Ihs. 


66.      A  HOME-MADE,  THREE-SECTION  WOODEN  ROLLER 
Note  the  device  for  keeping  it  clean.    Wooden  rollers  quickly  wear  out 


. 


ROLLING,  PLANKING,  AND  HOEING  187 

good  for  several  purposes.  He  is  not  satisfied  to 
use  a  spike-tooth  harrow  after  the  plow  when  a 
heavy  disk  harrow  is  needed  to  chop  up  the  sod. 
He  does  not  like  to  get  along  with  a  walking  plow, 
however  excellent  work  it  may  do,  if  a  sulky  plow 
will  do  the  work  as  well,  and  easier  and  cheaper. 
To  get  each  part  of  the  farm  work  done  in  the  best 
possible  manner  and  at  the  least  cost  is  the  point 
that  should  decide  the  question  of  what  kind  of 
tools  and  how  many.  Five  might  do  the  work  after 
a  fashion;  but  if  ten  would  do  it  enough  better, 
quicker,  easier  and  cheaper  to  more  than  pay  for 
the  cost  of  the  other  five  it  is  economy  and  profit 
to  have  them.  One-plow-one-harrow-one-culti- 
vator farmers  are  the  kind  that  say  "farming 
don't  pay." 

Just  how  many  tools  it  will  pay  to  buy  is,  there- 
fore, a  problem  for  each  farmer  to  decide.  He 
should  not  stint  himself  on  those  that  are  really 
necessary;  a  few  bushels  more  corn  per  acre,  the 
result  of  fitting  the  land  better  with  a  good  tool, 
will  pay  for  it  in  a  single  season.  He  should  be 
careful  not  to  indulge  himself  in  tool  getting,  with- 
out sufficient  justification  for  the  outlay,  however 
pleasurable  that  is  to  the  man  who  loves  to  handle 
soil.  First  of  all  he  will  need  to  consider  the  kind 
of  soil  to  be  handled.  Certain  tools  do  better 
work  on  heavy  soils  than  on  light  soils ;  if  the  farm 
has  several  types  of  soils,  as  is  most  likely  in  north- 
ern United  States,  it  may  pay  to  keep  tools  for  each. 
The  crops  to  be  grown  will  also  determine  to  a 
large  extent  the  types  and  number  of  tools  needed. 
Finally  the  size  of  the  farm  or  the  area  of  the  crop 
will  determine  whether  it  will  pay  to  buy  a  certain 
useful  tool  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  work.  This 
must  be  the  deciding  point.  Often  it  would  be 


188  SOILS 

extremely  useful  to  have  a  certain  tool,  but  the 
amount  of  work  that  it  would  be  called  upon  to  do 
is  so  small  that  it  would  not  pay  for  itself. 

Tools  represent  so  much  capital  and  have  such  a 
vital  relation  to  the  productivity  and  economical 
management  of  the  farm  that  the  problem  of  what 
kinds  to  get  and  how  many  deserves  more  attention 
from  farmers  than  is  usually  given  it. 


CHAPTER  IX 

DRAINAGE   OF   FARM   SOILS 

NO  OTHER  farm  practice  has  added  to  the 
value  of  agricultural  lands  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States  more  than  under- 
drainage.  Excess  of  water  in  the  soil  is  as  fatal 
to  most  farm  crops  as  deficiency.  A  soil  must 
be  able  to  rid  itself  of  surplus  water  before 
it  can  be  cropped  and  it  often  happens  that  this  is 
the  only  defect  of  many  soils  that  are  otherwise 
very  valuable  for  farming.  Fortunately  it  is 
usually  quite  practicable  to  remedy  this  defect  by 
drainage. 

A  Problem  of  the  Eastern  States. — Drainage  is, 
for  the  most  part,  a  problem  of  the  states  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  Probably  it  would  pay  to  under- 
drain  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  farm  land  in  this 
region.  On  the  prairie  lands  of  the  central  West 
under-drainage  is  practised  more  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  country,  and  it  has  added  immeasurably 
to  the  wealth  of  that  section.  West  of  the  Mis- 
souri and  Mississippi  in  general,  and  in  the  regions 
of  scanty  rainfall  in  particular,  the  drainage  of  lands 
is  often  necessary,  especially  on  alkali  soils,  and  is 
frequently  used ;  but  it  is  insignificant  when  compared 
with  the  need  of  drainage  in  the  humid  regions 
of  the  East.  What  irrigation  is  to  the  West,  drainage 
is  to  the  East,  although  both  are  needed  more  or 
less  each  side  of  the  great  rivers.  Until  quite 
recently  drainage  has  received  the  most  attention 
in  this  country;  now  irrigation  has  come  to  the 

189 


190  SOILS 

fore  and  claims,  and  receives,  its  due.  A  large 
share  of  the  unprecedented  progress  in  American 
agriculture  during  the  past  twenty-five  years  is  due 
to  the  more  general  use  of  these  two  coordinate 
farm  practices,  each  of  which  has  the  same  general 
purpose  in  view — to  give  the  crop  an  adequate 
and  equable  supply  of  moisture. 

The  surplus  water  in  a  soil,  which  it  is  purposed 
to  remove  by  drainage,  all  comes  from  rainfall; 
but  rarely  is  it  only  that  which  falls  upon  the  soil 
itself.  The  water  may  flow  upon  it  as  surface 
drainage  from  higher  land,  or  it  may  come  from 
below,  being  rain  that  has  fallen  upon  higher  land, 
sunk  into  the  soil,  followed  a  ledge  of  rock  or  layer 
of  impervious  soil,  and  finally  found  its  way  to  the 
Surface  of  the  lower  land  as  a  spring,  oozing  from 
a  hillside  or  bubbling  up  from  the  subsoil.  Quite 
often  level  land  which  is  not  surrounded  by  higher 
land,  and  which  contains  only  the  water  that  falls 
upon  it,  is  benefited  by  drainage  because  the  soil 
is  shallow.  In  such  cases  the  most  beneficial 
result  of  drainage  may  be,  not  to  remove  excess 
water,  but  to  increase  the  amount  of  moisture  that 
the  soil  can  hold — a  seeming  paradox  that  is 
explained  farther  on. 

WHEN    DRAINAGE    IS   NEEDED 

Two  kinds  of  soils  need  draining;  those  that 
have  too  much  water,  and  those  that  are  too  shal- 
low. The  signs  of  poor  drainage  are  obvious. 
Swamps,  marshes,  meadows  and  all  other  low  land 
on  which  water  stands  for  any  considerable  time 
may  be  drained,  provided  there  is  fall  enough  to 
secure  an  outlet.  These  low  lands  may  be  those 
which  collect  surface  drainage,  or  seepage  from 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  191 

nearby  higher  land:  or  they  may  be  lands  that 
are  regularly  flooded  by  fresh  water  or  by  tides. 
Farm  land  which  dries  out  slowly  in  spring,  mak- 
ing the  working  and  growing  season  shorter,  or  on 
which  water  stands  for  a  long  time  after  heavy 
rains,  needs  to  be  drained.  If  water  oozes  into 
the  plow  furrow  the  soil  is  too  wet  for  good  farming. 

The  kind  of  plants  that  take  possession  of  a 
field,  before  it  is  broken  up  or  after  it  has  been 
laid  down  in  sod,  or  after  it  has  been  neglected  for 
a  year  or  more,  are  usually  a  reliable  index  to  its 
need  of  drainage.  If  bog  and  water-loving  plants 
become  established  here  and  there,  especially 
sedges,  rushes  and  mosses,  the  soil  is  too  wet. 
Certain  spots  in  the  field,  usually  the  lowest  places, 
will  indicate  their  need  of  drainage  in  this  way, 
although  most  of  the  field  is  all  right. 

All  of  these  surface  indications,  however,  should 
be  supplemented  or  verified  by  an  examination  of 
the  water  table.  Dig  a  hole  in  the  field  from  four 
to  six  feet  deep.  If  water  stands  in  this  hole  within 
three  feet  of  the  surface  or  less,  during  most  of  the 
growing  season,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  roots  of 
cultivated  plants  do  not  find  enough  room,  air  and 
warmth  in  that  soil  to  produce  the  largest  crops. 
The  growth  of  the  crops  themselves  supplies  evi- 
dence. On  poorly  drained  soils  the  plants  start 
slowly,  look  sickly  and  stunted,  and  never  make 
the  profitable  growth  of  neighbouring  plants  on 
well-drained  soil.  Both  yield  and  quality  are  re- 
duced. Within  the  boundaries  of  one  field  there 
are  often  both  well-drained  and  poorly  drained 
places.  The  contrast  in  the  growth  of  plants 
under  these  two  conditions  is  usually  sufficiently 
marked  to  impress  the  farmer  with  the  need  and 
profit  of  draining  the  land. 


192  SOILS 

Under-draining  to  Deepen  Shallow  Soils. — There 
is  another  class  of  soils — those  that  are  shallow — that 
are  improved  by  being  drained,  but  these  are  not 
too  wet  except  for  short  periods.  First,  there  are 
the  soils  that  have  a  hardpan  close  to  the  surface, 
perhaps  within  one  to  three  feet.  This  hardpan 
may  be  a  stratum  of  rock,  but  more  often  it  is  a 
layer  of  stiff  and  impervious  clay.  The  rock  hard- 
pan  cannot  be  improved,  but  the  clay  hardpan 
can.  Water  cannot  readily  penetrate  it.  It  is 
like  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  pan;  when  a  heavy 
rain  comes,  the  pan  soon  fills  and  overflows,  making 
surface  water.  This  can  escape  by  surface  drainage 
or  by  evaporation.  But  such  a  soil  quickly 
dries  out  and  suffers  in  a  drought,  because  it 
has  so  little  depth.  What  is  needed  is  to  deepen 
the  soil — to  lower  the  bottom  of  the  pan — so  that 
it  will  hold  more  water. 

There  are  two  important  ways  of  deepening  a 
shallow  soil.  If  the  hardpan  is  close  to  the  surface, 
stirring  the  surface  with  a  subsoil  plow  helps,  since 
it  loosens  the  soil  deeper  than  the  plow,  thus  en- 
abling it  to  hold  more  water.  But  the  loosened 
soil  becomes  compacted  again  in  a  few  years;  at 
best  the  results  of  subsoiling  are  only  temporary. 
Under-drainage  is  permanent  subsoiling;  it  takes 
away  the  water  that  has  cemented  the  subsoil,  and 
permits  the  air  to  enter  it,  thus  promoting  all  the 
fining,  loosening  and  mellowing  influences  of 
weathering.  The  value  of  under-drainage  for  deep- 
ening a  soil  is  witnessed  on  thousands  of  Eastern 
farms. 

Draining  to  Improve  Texture. — Still  another 
type  of  soils — those  poor  in  texture — is  often  greatly 
benefited  by  being  drained.  These  are  mostly 
the  clayey  soils  that  get  hard,  lumpy,  and 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  193 

unmanageable  when  dry,  and  sticky  when  wet. 
They  are  not  what  would  be  called  wet  soils, 
neither  are  they  shallow,  but  they  are  not  mellow 
and  they  run  to  extremes,  either  very  dry  or  very 
wet.  It  is  impossible  to  work  them  early  in  spring. 
Heavy  rains  put  them  in  such  a  condition  that 
they  cannot  be  cultivated  for  several  days  after  the 
crops  begin  to  need  tilling.  The  surface  bakes 
and  cracks.  Such  soils  are  improved  by  plowing 
under  a  green-manuring  crop,  by  under-drainage, 
or  by  both.  In  many  cases  the  addition  of  humus 
is  sufficient  to  bring  the  soil  into  good  heart;  in 
extreme  cases  under-drainage  must  be  called  to  the 
aid  of  humus. 

Land  drainage  is  not  chiefly  concerned,  as  many 
suppose,  with  carrying  off  surplus  water  from  very 
wet  soils.  Drainage  adds  far  more  to  the  value 
of  farm  soils,  and  to  the  profits  in  cropping  them, 
by  improving  soils  that  are  shallow,  or  in  bad  tex- 
ture, or  but  slightly  wet,  than  by  removing  excess 
water  from  very  wet  soils.  Many  thousands  of 
acres  of  swamps,  meadows  and  marshes  have  been 
brought  under  profitable  husbandry  by  drainage; 
but  me  combined  area  of  these  is  very  small  com-  ^ 
pared  with  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of 
farm  lands  that  are  not  excessively  wet,  but  that  . 
have  been  greatly  improved  by  the  same  means.  ^ 
Drainage,  and  especially  under-drainage,  is  of 
greatest  service  upon  land  already  under  cul- 
tivation, but  which  is  not  yielding  maximum  crops 
because  of  inequalities  in  the  water  supply.  Far- 
mers should  make  a  critical  examination  of 
each  field  in  this  respect,  regardless  of  the 
length  of  time  that  it  has  been  cultivated. 
Deficiencies  may  exist  that  never  have  been 
suspected. 


194  SOILS 

LAND  WITH  GOOD  NATURAL  DRAINAGE 

The  foregoing  remarks  should  not  obscure  the 
fact  that  in  some  cases  it  may  be  more  practi- 
cable to  buy  land  that  has  good  natural  drainage 
than  to  drain  wet  land.  All  farm  soils  need  drain- 
ing; but  fortunately  most  soils  are  well-drained 
naturally.  There  is  a  great  area  of  American  farm 
soils  that  have  almost  perfect  natural  drainage, 
and  a  still  greater  area  of  soils  that  are  drained 
quite  satisfactorily.  These  are  mostly  sandy  or 
loamy  soils,  or  soils  rich  in  humus;  and  especially 
soils  that  have  an  open  subsoil  which  is  sandy,  or 
gravelly  or  of  about  the  same  nature  as  the  surface 
soil.  Water  passes  through  some  of  these  soils 
so  readily  that  they  can  be  worked  a  few  hours 
after  a  heavy  rain.  The  bulb  fields  near 
Puget  Sound,  Washington,  have  a  soil  so  open 
that  men  can  work  in  it  within  an  hour  after  a 
rainfall  of  over  one  inch;  yet  it  is  very  retentive 
and  moist  at  all  times.  The  causes  of  this  very 
equable  condition  are  the  large  amount  of  humus 
that  the  surface  soil  contains,  and  the  subsoil  of 
fine,  sandy  loam. 

One  of  the  first  points  to  look  after  when  buying 
farm  land,  then,  is  its  drainage,  for  Nature  can 
drain  land  much  cheaper  than  man.  Dig  several 
holes,  five  or  six  feet  deep,  to  see  what  kind  of 
subsoil  lies  beneath  the  surface  that  looks  so 
promising.  The  value  of  a  soil  for  cropping  de- 
pends almost  as  much  upon  the  former  as  upon 
the  latter.  The  "lav  of  the  land"  is  also  impor- 
tant. Sloping  land  is  not  necessarily  well-drained 
land.  A  slope  may  provide  good  drainage,  and 
it  may  not.  It  carries  off  much  excess  water  as 
surface  drainage,  to  be  sure,  but  we  wish  the  soil 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  195 

drained  for  at  least  four  feet  below  the  surface. 
Some  of  the  most  poorly  drained  farm  soils  are 
on  slopes.  They  are  usually  clayey  and  may 
have  springs  oozing  from  them.  In  other  words, 
a  slope  is  an  aid  to  good  drainage,  but  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  its  elevation  with  refer- 
ence to  surrounding  land  are  far  more  important 
factors. 

WHEN    IT   WILL   PAY   TO    DRAIN    LAND 

Not  all  land  that  would  be  greatly  benefited  by 
being  drained  will  it  pay  to  drain.  It  is  a  question  of 
economics  as  well  as  of  securing  maximum  pro- 
ductiveness. It  might  be  more  practicable,  for 
example,  to  put  a  certain  field  of  hard  and  rather 
wet  soil  into  grass,  which  usually  grows  fairly  well 
under  these  conditions,  or  at  least  better  than  most 
other  farm  crops,  than  to  go  to  the  expense  of 
draining  it  for  corn,  cotton  or  rye.  Trie  more 
exacting  the  crop,  as  regards  an  equable  supply 
of  moisture,  the  more  likely  is  it  that  it  will  pay 
to  drain  the  land.  Likewise  the  higher  the  value 
of  land,  and  the  more  intense  the  culture,  the 
greater  are  the  arguments  for  drainage. 

Again,  it  might  pay  to  drain  land  used  for 
special  crops  which  nave  a  high  value  per  acre,  as 
market-garden  crops,  when  it  would  not  pay  to 
drain  this  land  if  it  were  planted  to  staple  crops, 
which  have  a  lower  value  per  acre.  Furthermore, 
it  might  not  pay  to  drain  a  certain  field  if  the  far- 
mer has  plenty  of  other  land  which  is  better  drained, 
and  land  is  cheap.  Much  also  depends  upon  the 
kind  of  soil,  and  the  difference  between  its  present 
value  and  its  value  after  being  drained.  The  same 
system  of  drainage  may  add  $10  per  acre  to  the 


196  SOILS 

value  of  a  poor  soil,  and  $100  per  acre  to  the  value 
of  rich  soil. 

These,  and  other  points  in  farm  economics, 
should  decide  the  practicability  of  draining  land, 
after  the  need  for  draining  it  has  been  clearly 
proved.  There  is  much  farm  land  now  producing 
indifferent  crops,  and  the  owners  do  not  even  sus- 
pect that  its  mediocrity  is  due  to  poor  drainage. 
The  first  cost  of  draining  land  is  large  and  the 
returns  from  the  outlay  are  not  immediate;  they 
are  distributed  over  many  years.  It  may  be 
several  years  before  the  drains  have  paid  for  them- 
selves. This  fact  is  responsible  for  much  of  the 
hesitancy  among  farmers  about  undertaking  an 
improvement  that  they  readily  admit  is  needed. 
They  hate  to  "bury  their  money,"  or  to  put  into 
the  soil  and  out  of  sight  an  improvement  the 
operation  of  which  they  cannot  watch.  The  same 
argument,  however,  might  be  raised  against  the 
use  of  a  fertiliser;  the  operation  of  neither  can  be 
watched,  but  the  effects  of  both  are  readily  seen. 
There  is  a  deepening  interest  in  farm  drainage 
as  land  increases  in  value  and  as  it  becomes 
correspondingly  necessary  to  make  plants  comfort- 
able, so  that  they  may  be  grown  at  the  lowest 
possible  cost  of  production. 

EFFECT   OF   DRAINING   ON   THE   SOIL 

The  direct  benefits  of  draining  land  have  al- 
ready been  pointed  out  in  the  chapters  on  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  on  soil  water.  The  most  important 
result  is  that  it  makes  the  soil  warmer.  A  wet 
soil  is  cold,  chiefly  because  the  water  in  it  is  con- 
stantly evaporating,  and  evaporation  is  a  cooling 
process.  To  illustrate  this:  If  the  bulb  of  one 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  197 

thermometer  is  covered  with  wet  muslin,  and  the 
bulb  of  another  similar  thermometer  is  left  un- 
covered, the  wet  thermometer  may  register  as 
much  as  15  degrees  cooler  when  both  are  swung 
in  dry  air.  This  is  due  to  the  cooling  effect  of  the 
evaporation  of  the  water.  Moreover,  water  is  a 
poor  conductor  of  heat;  wet  soils  warm  in  the  sun 
slowly,  because  the  water  they  contain  holds 
down  the  temperature.  There  is  usually  a 
difference  of  5  to  10  degrees  between  drained  and 
undrained  soil  in  the  same  field.  In  fact,  the 
temperature  of  a  soil  in  summer  is  very  largely 
determined  by  the  amount  of  water  it  contains; 
the  wetter  it  is  the  colder  it  is.  Warmth  is  one  of 
the  chief  essentials  for  the  germination  and  growth 
of  farm  crops ;  it  is  the  coldness  of  a  poorly  drained 
soil,  more  than  the  mere  excess  of  water  it  con- 
tains, that  is  responsible  for  most  of  the  unsatis- 
factory growth  of  crops  upon  it. 

Draining  a  soil  allows  the  air  to  enter  it  more 
freely.  If  all  the  spaces  between  the  soil  grains 
are  filled  with  water  air  cannot  enter.  Air  is  one 
of  the  most  important  agencies  that  help  to  make 
a  soil  productive.  It  changes  the  rock  particles 
of  the  soil  into  plant  food  and  is  essential  to  the 
decay  of  plants  in  the  soil,  making  humus.  Seeds 
must  have  air  or  they  will  not  germinate.  The 
soil  bacteria  that  make  fertility  cannot  thrive 
without  air;  the  more  thoroughly  and  the  more 
deeply  a  soil  can  be  aerated  the  richer  it  should  be, 
'and  the  better  should  plants  grow  upon  it.  The 
depth  to  which  air  penetrates  the  soil  increases 
when  the  water-table  is  lowered  by  drainage, 
hence  a  larger  feeding  area  is  presented  to  the  roots. 

Draining   a   Soil   Makes   it   More    Moist. — Al- 
though it  may  seem  a  paradox,  draining  a  soil  may 


198  SOILS 

make  it  more  moist  at  the  times  when  moisture  is 
needed  most.  This  is  a  feature  of  drainage  that 
many  people  find  hard  to  understand,  yet  the 
explanation  is  very  simple.  Drainage  lowers  the 
water-table,  thus  increasing  the  volume  of  soil 
above  it  in  which  the  roots  of  plants  can  feed,  for 
they  can  use  only  film  water.  The  larger  the  area 
of  soil  above  the  water-table,  the  more  film  water 
there  is  for  the  plants  to  use.  They  root  deeper 
and  so  are  farther  away  from  the  dry  surface  soil. 
Furthermore,  a  soil  is  more  mellow  after  being 
drained  than  before,  so  it  can  absorb  and  hold 
more  water  as  film  moisture,  and  its  ability  to 
draw  up  water  from  the  water-table  is  increased. 
Under-drainage  simply  carries  off  free  or  standing 
water,  thus  leaving  more  room  for  the  film  water 
that  plants  use.  Hence  it  is  that  a  drained  soil  is 
dryer  in  a  wet  time  and  more  moist  in  a  dry  time 
than  before  it  was  drained. 

In  humid  regions  under-drainage  maybe  equiva- 
lent to  irrigation  as  a  means  of  supplying  water  to 
the  crop.  The  farmer  who  drains  his  land  owns 
more  soil  than  he  did  before ;  for  until  the  water- 
table  was  lowered  he  had  the  use  only  of  the  soil 
above  it,  the  only  part  in  which  the  roots  of  his 
plants  can  feed.  If  he  lowers  the  water-table 
two  feet  he  adds  a  layer  of  soil  two  feet  thick  to 
his  property.  He  has  two  feet  more  of  soil  in 
which  the  roots  of  his  plants  may  find  nourishment. 
This  is  the  cheapest  way  of  increasing  the  size  of 
the  farm. 

After  a  soil  has  been  drained  the  roots  of  plants 
penetrate  it  deeper,  earthworms  burrow  deeper 
in  it,  air  follows  these  channels  and  the  ventilation 
of  the  soil  is  still  further  improved.  A  system  of 
tile  drainage  is  itself  very  effective  in  aerating  the 


68.    CO rvN  "DROWNED  OUT" 

The  aggregate  loss  of  crops  by  poor  drainage  is  enormous.     Much  of  tins 
loss  can  be  prevented 


69.     MEADOW  ON  WHICH  WATER  HAS  BEEN  STANDING 
The  land  now  has  no  value  for  cropping.     It  could  be  drained  at  a  slight  expense 


70.    A  SOIL  WELL  DRAINED  NATURALLY  BY  A  GRAVELLY  SUBSOIL 
Examine  the  subsoil  when  purchasing  land 


71.     SURFACE  DRAINAGE  BY  "PLOWING  INTO  LANDS" 

The  dead  furrows  in  this  meadow  are  10  paces  apart.     They  lead  the  water  into  a  shallow 
ditch  on  the  side  of  the  field 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  199 

soil.  Most  of  the  time  the  tiles  carry  air,  as  well 
as  water.  When  the  surface  air  is  much  warmer 
than  the  soil  air,  as  on  a  warm  day  in  early  spring, 
a  system  of  tile  drains  may  supply  a  slight  bottom 
heat,  or  at  least  be  the  means  of  equalising  tem- 
perature. Thus  a  good  system  of  under-drainage 
aerates  the  soil  both  from  above  and  from  below. 

Practical  Results  from  Draining  Land. — The 
practical  result  of  the  better  aeration  and  increased 
warmth  secured  by  draining  land  is  that  the  soil 
becomes  richer  and  more  productive.  Not  only 
does  more  plant  food  in  the  soil  itself  become 
available,  but  also  the  manures  or  fertilisers  that 
may  be  applied  are  more  effective,  since  they  too 
must  first  be  treated  with  Nature's  chemicals  before 
the  plants  can  use  them.  The  beneficial  bacteria 
of  the  soil,  which  thrive  only  in  warmth  and  mois- 
ture— not  wetness — are  encouraged  to  multiply. 
The  season  is  lengthened  at  both  ends;  the  soil 
can  be  worked  earlier  and  later,  so  crops  have  the 
use  of  it  longer. 

If  a  poorly  drained  field  is  sloping  there  may  be  a 
considerable  loss  of  fertility  by  surface  washing. 
After  this  field  is  drained,  rains  sink  into  the  soil 
more  readily,  as  it  is  looser  and  dryer,  and  so  a  large 
part  of  the  surface  washing  is  checked.  The  cost  of 
growing  a  crop  is  reduced,  especially  in  preparing 
the  seed  bed,  for  a  mellow,  well-drained  soil  is  easier 
to  handle  and  can  be  brought  into  the  right  shape 
quicker  than  cloddy,  poorly  drained  soil.  Seeds 
germinate  better,  because  the  soil  is  warm  and  dry 
instead  of  cold  and  wet. 

The  quality  as  well  as  the  yield  of  the  crop 
is  often  improved.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  grass  or  hay;  that  which  grows  in  well- 
drained  meadows  or  pastures  is  of  much  higher 


200  SOILS 

value  for  feeding  than  that  which  grows  in  wet 
land,  not  only  because  the  better  grasses  thrive 
in  the  well-drained  soil,  but  also  because  they 
actually  contain  more  nutriment.  These  and 
other  benefits  of  draining  wet,  shallow  or  hard 
soils  may  be  crystallised  into  one  sentence ;  drain- 
ing increases  the  producing  capacity  of  such  soils 
and  enables  the  man  who  tills  them  to  put 
his  crops  upon  the  market  at  a  lower  cost  of 
production. 

WHAT   KIND    OF    DRAINS   TO    USE 

Soils  are  drained  in  two  ways,  by  surface  drains 
or  by  under-drains.  Which  method  should  be 
followed  is  mainly  a  matter  of  expediency  and  of 
thoroughness.  Surface  drainage  is  secured  chiefly 
by  means  of  open  ditches.  The  objections  to  open 
ditches  as  compared  with  under-drains  are  numer- 
ous and  forceful.  They  cost  more  than  tile  drains, 
both  to  make  and  to  maintain.  More  soil  must 
be  moved  for  surface  drains  than  for  under-drains 
in  order  to  make  the  ditch  of  the  needed  capacity 
and  to  give  the  banks  sufficient  slope  so  that  they 
will  not  wash.  Ditches  need  frequent  repairing 
and  cleaning  out,  the  sides  cave  in,  they  become 
choked  with  plants,  many  of  which  may  be  noxious 
weeds,  and  the  soil  wasnes  in. 

Ditches  take  up  much  valuable  space  and  hinder 
the  use  of  teams.  In  order  to  thoroughly  drain 
a  wet  field  the  ditches  would  need  to  be  so  close 
and  so  large  that  they  would  occupy  one-fifth  to 
one-sixth  of  the  area.  This  is  too  much  to  lose 
if  under-drains  will  do  just  as  well.  Furthermore, 
the  loss  of  water  from  open  ditches  by  evaporation 
is  very  great.  It  amounts  to  from  40  to  50  inches 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  201 

of  water  a  year,  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  much 
more  than  that  in  the  arid  regions. 

These  objections  are  sufficiently  forceful  to 
make  dramage_byLjnpen  ditches,  entirely  impracti- 
cable when  tile_drains  ran  be  used.  There  are 
many  sections  of  the  country,  notably  in  the  South, 
where  it  is  dangerous  to  provide  any  kind  of  sur- 
face drainage,  because  the  soil  washes  so  badly. 
All  kinds  of  surface  drains  everywhere  carry 

V  «/ 

away  more  fertility  than  would  be  lost  through 
under-drains.  In  most  cases  it  is  better  that 
excess  water  should  pass  through  a  soil  instead 
of  over  it. 

WHEN    DITCHES   ARE    PRACTICABLE 

There  are,  however,  conditions  under  which 
surface  drainage  is  not  only  useful,  but  is  about  the 
only  kind  of  drainage  that  is  at  all  practicable.  In 
peaty  or  muck  bogs,  fresh  and  salt  water  marshes, 
cranberry  bogs  and  the  like,  the  open  ditch  is  the 
only  feasible  method  of  drainage,  at  least  for  the 
larger  drains.  In  these  cases  the  main  object  is 
to  carry  off  the  flood  or  surface  water;  the  water- 
table  is  not  lowered  to  the  depth  that  is  necessary 
for  most  farm  crops.  Whenever  it  is  wished  to 
lower  the  water-table  of  such  lands  to  four  feet 
and  to  plant  them  with  the  common  farm  crops,  it 
is  usually  necessary  to  supplement  ditching  with 
tile  drainage. 

Tile  drains  cannot  be  laid  in  marshes  in  which 
the  peat  is  not  well  rotted  until  they  have  been 
partially  drained  by  open  ditches.  When  a  peat 
soil  is  drained  it  shrinks;  if  tile  drains  had  Been 
laid  the  tile  would  soon  be  found  too  near  the  sur- 
face. In  such  cases  it  is  preferable  to  first  put  in 


202  SOILS 

open  ditches  to  dry  out  the  marsh  until  the  shrink- 
age has  occurred.  Get  a  crop  started  upon  the 
marsh  as  soon  as  possible,  as  it  hastens  decay. 
Later  these  ditches  may  be  deepened  and  tile 
drains  laid  in  the  bottoms  of  them. 

According  to  King,  another  occasion  when  open 
ditches  are  feasible  is  in  draining  very  level  land 
underlaid  by  a  very  fine  clay.  These  places  are 
usually  found  where  a  lake  once  existed.  Water 
moves  through  the  fine  clay  so  slowly  that  tile  drains 
would  not  be  effective  unless  laid  so  close  that  the 
expense  would  be  prohibitive.  Such  soils  should 
be  plowed  into  lands  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
wide  with  the  dead-furrows  emptying  into  shallow 
ditches. 

Ditches  are  also  useful  to  provide  an  outlet  for 
under-drains,  and  to  catch  surface  drainage  on 
slopes,  or  at  the  foot  of  slopes.  In  other  words, 
ditching  is  useful  mainly  for  taking  care  of  surface 
water,  and  for  removing  the  excess  of  water  in  the 
first  foot  or  two  of  soil.  Deep  and  thorough 
drainage,  such  as  most  farm  crops  demand,  can 
usually  be  best  secured  by  under-drainage. 

HOW   TO    DIG   A    DRAINAGE    DITCH 

The  depth,  width  and  grade  of  a  ditch  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  amount  of  water  to  be  removed, 
the  lay  of  the  land  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In 
marsh  lands  the  ditch  may  usually  be  cut  to  a 
depth  of  four  or  six  feet,  and  with  almost  vertical 
sides.  Peat  or  muck  soil  is  not  liable  to  wash  or 
cave  in,  being  more  or  less  fibrous,  especially  if 
the  water-table  is  not  lowered  sufficiently  to  dry 
out  the  soil  so  deep  that  it  will  shrink  and  crumble 
the  banks.  Ditches  in  an  upland  soil,  however, 


DRAINING  WET  LAND  WITH  AN  OPEN  DITCH 


Ditching  is  much  inferior  to  tile  draining,  where  the  latter  is  expedient,  being  more 

expensive  in  the  long  run  and  not  as  lasting.     But  only  ditches  arc 

practicable  on  some  marsh  land.     The  sides  of 

this  ditch  are  too  steep 


AX  OPEN  DITCH  WITH  GRASSED  SIDES  ON  AN  EASY  SLOPE,  SO 

THEY  DO  NOT  WASH 

All  ditches  take  up  much  room.     They  become  foul  with  weeds  and 
must  be  cleaned  out 


74.     LAYING  A  TILE  DRAIN 

The  dUch  is  four  feet  deep.      The  line  of  tiles  is  given  a  fall  of  one  to  four  inches  in 
100  feet.     The  joints  are  fitted  together  carefully 


75.  A  TILE  THAT  HAS  BEEN  CLOGGED  BY  TREE  ROOTS 

The  whole  drain  may  be  obstructed  in  this  way.     Lay  sewer  pipe  when  the  drain  passes 
near  trees,  and  cement  the  joints 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  203 

must  have  sloping  banks.  If  the  soil  is  a  tenacious 
clay  a  slope  of  15°  to  20°  may  be  sufficient  to  hold 
the  banks.  More  often  a  slope  of  45°  is  barely 
enough  to  prevent  caving  in,  which  means  much 
extra  work.  The  greater  the  fall  of  the  ditch,  the 
flatter  should  be  the  banks. 

In  many  cases,  especially  for  wet  meadows,  the 
best  kind  of  ditch  is  merely  a  broad  hollow,  about 
one  or  two  feet  deep  and  six  or  eight  feet  wide. 
These  places  may  be  grassed  over,  if  in  a  meadow ; 
if  the  land  is  used  for  tilled  crops  and  the  ditch 
serves  as  a  water  carrier  only  in  winter  and  early 
spring,  it  may  be  planted.  All  kinds  of  farm 
machines  can  pass  over  such  a  ditch;  it  is  the 
most  serviceable  kind  whenever  it  will  drain  the 
land  sufficiently.  On  nearly  all  comparatively 
flat  land,  and  especially  on  western  prairie  lana, 
there  are  many  shallow  natural  water-courses, 
variously  called  "runs,"  "draws"  and  "sloughs." 
The  heavy  spring  rains  turn  these  into  drainage 
channels.  If  necessary  shallow  ditches,  ten  or 
twelve  feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep,  may  be  scooped 
out  in  these  draws  with  plow  and  scraper  and  the 
bottom  and  sides  seeded  to  grass. 

The  Grade. — The  grade  of  an  open  ditch  must 
be  low.  A  fall  of  five  or  six  inches  in  a  hundred 
feet  is  usually  about  all  that  an  ordinary  soil  will 
stand  without  washing,  especially  if  the  banks  have 
not  enough  slope.  If  it  is  necessary  to  make 
curves  in  a  ditch,  they  should  be  very  gradual, 
particularly  if  the  fall  is  greater  than  it  ought  to  be, 
for  when  me  ditch  runs  full  the  water  will  tend  to 
eat  into  the  outer  bank,  as  it  does  in  streams. 
When  an  average  ditch  is  running  full  after  a 
freshet  a  fall  of  two  inches  in  a  hundred  feet  makes 
a  current  of  about  four  miles  an  hour.  This 


204  SOILS 

current  quickly  undermines  steep  banks  unless 
the  soil  is  very  fibrous  or  clayey.  It  is  usually 
best  to  grass  over  open  ditches ;  some  sort  of  herb- 
age will  soon  cover  the  banks  anyhow,  but  grass 
roots  are  more  valuable  as  soil  binders. 

The  distance  apart  of  open  ditches  is  governed 
entirely  by  the  nature  of  the  land.  In  marsh  land 
the  small  laterals,  which  may  be  about  three  feet 
deep  and  three  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  are  fre- 
quently placed  from  40  to  100  feet  apart,  and 
empty  into  larger  main  ditches,  which  are  five  or 
six  feet  deep  and  equally  wide  on  the  bottom. 
In  some  cases  it  is  better  to  dig  larger  ditches  from 
150  to  200  feet  apart. 

PLOWING    INTO    LANDS 

This  simple  and  very  common  device  for  surface 
drainage  has  already  been  mentioned  in  Chapter  V. 
It  is  useful  solely  for  removing  the  excess  of  free 
water,  especially  that  which  stands  upon  the  sur- 
face. Plowing  a  field  into  lands  makes,  very 
shallow  open  ditches.  It  is  quite  common  to 
leave  dead-furrows  about  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
apart,  thus  throwing  the  soil  into  slightly 
raised  beds  or  lands.  The  dead-furrows  should 
usually  lead  to  open  ditches  on  the  side  of  the 
field.  This  dries  out  the  soil  and  warms  it 
earlier  in  spring. 

If  the  soil  is  liable  to  remain  wet  late  into  the 
spring,  and  especially  if  it  is  a  heavy  clay,  the  dead- 
furrows  may  be  in  the  same  place  for  several  years, 
thus  deepening  the  hollows  and  elevating  the  lands. 
On  average  soils,  however,  the  dead-furrows  should 
be  made  in  different  places  each  year.  According 
to  Roberts,  lands  five  or  six  paces  wide  do  not 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  205 

drain  off  the  surface  water  of  nearly  level  fields  as 
effectively  as  lands  twenty  to  twenty-five  paces 
wide,  "because  not  enough  water  is  carried  into 
any  one  of  the  dead-furrows  to  produce  a  current 
sufficient  to  overcome  the  obstruction  offered  by 
clods  and  friction."  Surface  drainage  by  dead- 
furrows  is  most  practicable  on  very  fine  clay  soils, 
through  which  water  passes  so  slowly  that  it  would 
be  almost  useless  to  lay  tile  drains  beneath  them. 
Sometimes  the  dead-furrows  may  be  joined  by 
cross  furrows,  so  as  to  convey  the  water  away  along 
a  natural  depression. 

THE    ACTION    OF   UNDER-DRAINS 

In  most  cases  under-drains  are  more  efficient 
and  more  practicable  than  surface  drains.  Under- 
drains  may  be  of  stone,  boards,  brush,  or  other 
materials,  but  tile  drains  made  of  baked  clay  are 
now  used  almost  universally.  Drain  tiles  have 
come  into  common  use  within  fifty  years.  There 
are  now  many  thousands  of  tile  factories  at  work  in 
the  United  States.  Any  clay  that  will  make  good 
bricks  is  suitable  for  making  tiles.  Few  parts  of 
the  country  where  tiles  are  most  needed,  especially 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  are  without  facilities  for 
making  drain  tiles. 

The  philosophy  of  under-drainage  is  simple. 
An  open  passage  is  made  through  the  soil  below 
the  water-table;  that  is,  below  the  point  at  which 
water  fills  all  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles. 
It  is  like  boring  a  hole  into  a  water  tank  two  feet 
below  the  point  where  the  water  stands  in  the  tank, 
and  inserting  therein  a  pipe.  The  water  is  lowered 
to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  pipe.  Lines  of 
3-inch  tiles  are  run  through  the  subterranean 


206  SOILS 

lake;  tney  lower  its  surface  to  the  level  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tile  at  the  points  where  each  line  of  tile 
runs.  But  the  level  of  the  water- table  rises  higher 
between  the  lines  of  tile,  as  water  cannot  move  as 
freely  through  the  soil  as  it  does  in  the  open.  Thus 
the  surface  of  the  water-table  of  a  tile-drained 
field  is  something  like  a  series  of  crescents,  the  lines 
of  tiles  being  at  the  lowest  points. 

The  height  to  which  the  water-table  rises  be- 
tween the  lines  of  the  tiles  depends  upon  the 
distance  apart  of  the  drains  and  the  character 
of  the  soil.  The  farther  apart  they  are,  the 
higher  the  water  rises  between  them.  The  more 
sandy  or  porous  the  soil,  the  more  nearly  does 
the  water-table  come  to  the  level  of  the  drains 
over  all  the  field.  Thus,  if  under-drains  are  placed 
four  feet  deep  in  a  sandy  soil,  and  a  similar  distance 
in  a  clayey  soil,  the  water-table  of  the  former 
might  be  lowered  to  an  average  level  for  the 
field  of  three  and  one-half  feet  and  the  latter  to 
two  and  one-half  feet. 

It  must  be  clearly  understood  that  under-drains 
carry  off  only  free  water,  never  film  water.  Fur- 
thermore, they  remove  no  water  from  a  soil  unless 
the  water-table  is  above  them.  Water  does  not 
run  into  them,  it  is  squeezed  in.  For  instance,  if 
a  line  of  tile  drains  is  placed  four  feet  deep  in  a  soil 
in  which  the  water- table  is  four  feet  six  inches  be- 
low the  surface  in  summer,  none  of  this  water 
will  get  into  the  tiles  until  the  water-table  has 
been  raised  to  four  feet,  or  over,  as  it  might  be 
earlv  in  spring  after  heavy  rains. 

Water  enters  tile  drains  through  the  joints  and 
also  through  the  walls  of  the  tiles.  It  is  not 
^necessary,  as  many  suppose,  to  leave  a  crevice  be- 
tween the  tiles  for  the  entrance  of  water.  No 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  207 

matter  how  tight  a  joint  is  made,  water  will  pass  in 
freely.  In  laying  tile,  therefore,  the  object  should 
be  to  make  as  tight  a  joint  as  possible,  so  that  dirt 
will  not  enter  and  clog  the  tiles. 

PLANNING   THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM 

The  attempt  to  drain  a  piece  of  land,  no  matter 
how  small,  should  be  preceded  by  careful  planning. 
The  direction  of  the  drains,  the  distance  between 
them  and  the  grade  should  be  plotted  on  paper. 
The  aim  should  be  to  lay  out  the  system  so  as  to 
secure  sufficient  fall  ana  give  adequate  drainage 
with  the  least  digging  and  the  least  amount  of  tile. 
To  this  end  it  is  necessary  to  make  few  outlets  and 
junctions  and  not  to  lay  two  lines  of  tiles  so  close 
together  that  they  both  drain  an  area  that  could  be 
drained  by  one  line. 

On  small  areas  having  a  noticeable  fall,  the 
drains  may  be  located  by  eye  and  the  planning  may 
be  done  without  the  aiu  of  a  surveyor;  but  much 
land  that  requires  draining  is  quite  flat  and  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  give  the  drains  the  right  grade 
without  the  assistance  of  an  instrument.  It  does 
not  pay  to  go  to  the  expense  of  buying  tile  and  dig- 
ging ditches  only  to  make  a  botch  of  the  job  by 
trying  to  save  the  cost  of  the  services  of  a  competent 
drainage  engineer.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  the  work 
of  laying  out  the  drainage  system  on  a  large  area 
should  DC  entrusted  to  a  surveyor. 

The  owner  of  the  field  should,  however,  con- 
tribute his  knowledge  of  local  conditions.  He 
should  know,  for  instance,  the  source  of  the 
water  it  is  expected  the  drain  will  remove — whether 
it  comes  from  overflow,  springs  or  otherwise — so 
that  the  drains  may  be  laid  to  cut  off  the  supply 


208  SOILS 

with  the  least  amount  of  digging.  He  should  know 
the  wet  spots  in  the  field  and  if  the  outlet  of  the 
drainage  system  is  to  be  on  the  bank  of  a  stream,  he 
should  know  the  high- water  mark  of  the  stream. 
Only  the  man  who  tills  the  field  and  observes  the 
condition  of  the  soil  at  all  times  of  the  year 
can  locate  a  drainage  system  upon  it  most  eco- 
nomically. 

It  may  be  cheaper  and  better  to  have  a  large 
job  done  entirely  by  a  drainage  engineer.  He  has 
a  force  of  men  who  are  familiar  with  all  the  ins  and 
outs  of  the  business,  and  can  dig  a  ditch,  lay  tile  and 
finish  the  work  much  quicker  than  men  who  are 
unused  to  the  business.  It  is  especially  important 
that  the  man  who  lays  the  tile  should  be  skilled, 
or  if  not  skilled  at  least  very  careful.  Cheap  help 
for  this  work  is  poor  economy. 

In  planning  a  system  of  under-drainage  the 
various  points  should  be  considered  in  the  following 
order:  First,  select  the  best  outlet.  Second,  lo- 
cate the  position  of  the  main  or  mains.  Third, 
ascertain  the  difference  of  level  between  the  out- 
let and  the  highest  point  in  the  main,  and  de- 
termine the  grade.  Fourth,  locate  each  of  the 
laterals.  Fifth,  find  the  difference  in  level 
between  the  highest  point  in  each  lateral  and 
the  point  where  it  joins  the  main,  and  de- 
termine the  fall.  Under  all  circumstances  work 
from  the  outlet  or  outlets  back  to  the  furthermost 
laterals. 

Make  an  exact  plan  of  the  system  on  paper, 
drawn  to  a  scale.  A  man  usually  thinks  he  can 
remember  just  where  the  drains  are  located,  but 
in  a  surprisingly  short  time  all  traces  of  them  on  the 
surface  are  obliterated  and  recourse  must  be  had 
to  a  map.  Failure  to  make  a  map  may  cause 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  209 

much  inconvenience  and  useless  digging  when  the 
drains  need  attention  later. 

THE    OUTLET 

The  first  point  to  look  after  is  the  outlet;  the 
water  must  DC  carried  off  after  it  is  collected  by 
the  tiles.  More  than  one  drainage  system  has 
given  poor  service  solely  because  a  suitable  outlet 
was  not  provided.  The  channel  into  which  the 
drainage  system  discharges  may  be  a  natural  water 
course,  as  a  river,  creek,  brook,  or  rill,  or  it  may  be 
an  open  ditch  constructed  for  the  purpose.  If  a 
natural  water  course,  it  is  very  essential  that  the 
outlet  of  the  drain  be  at  least  several  feet  above 
the  highest  point  at  which  the  water  in  the  stream 
has  been  known  to  stand.  This  precaution  is 
necessary  to  prevent  the  stream  water  from  backing 
up  and  filling  the  lower  end  of  the  drainage  system, 
wnich  not  only  prevents  the  drainage  water  from 
escaping,  but  also  allows  the  stagnant  water  to 
deposit  sediment  on  the  bottom  of  the  tiles  and 
choke  them.  All  the  water  in  a  tile  drainage 
system  should  be  in  motion  all  the  time. 

The  outlet  is  the  most  vulnerable  part  of  a 
drainage  system;  it  is  the  only  part  that  comes  to 
the  surface.  Hence  it  will  pay  to  deepen  and 
straighten  the  course  of  the  stream  at  that  point, 
if  necessary,  in  order  to  make  it  doubly  sure  that 
the  drainage  water  will  meet  no  obstruction  in 
passing  from  the  outlet.  For  the  same  reason  it 
is  usually  best  to  have  as  few  outlets  as  possible; 
to  collect  the  water  from  many  or  several  lines 
or  systems  of  drains  into  one  main  with  a  single 
outlet.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  cheaper  to  have 
several  outlets,  one  for  each  system,  instead  of 


210  SOILS 

uniting  all  into  one  main.  The  cases  are  rare 
when  it  is  best  to  let  each  line  of  tile  have  an  in- 
dependent outlet. 

The  outlet  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  and 
soil,  guarded  from  the  tramping  of  animals  and 
protected  from  injury  by  frost.  In  the  Northern 
States  it  is  not  safe  to  run  the  ordinary  soft  tile 
to  the  surface.  The  last  ten  feet,  at  least, 
should  be  of  more  durable  material,  as  a  box  drain 
made  of  2-inch  plank;  or,  better  yet,  the  last  ten 
feet  may  be  of  glazed  sewer  tile.  Cast  iron  sewer 
tiles  are  sometimes  used.  It  is  well  to  face  the 
bank  at  the  outlet  with  brick  or  stone.  There 
should  be  a  wire  screen  over  the  outlet  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  small  animals.  Examine  the 
outlet  at  least  twice  a  year  to  see  that  it  is  free. 

THE    GRADE    OF   TILE    DRAINS 

The  amount  of  fall  or  grade  that  under-drains 
should  have  depends  upon  the  contour  of  the  land, 
the  length  of  the  drains  and  the  character  of  the 
soil.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  locate  the  outlet 
above  all  possible  danger  from  obstruction  by  back- 
water. The  height  above  the  outlet  of  the  highest 
point  of  land  that  is  to  be  drained  must  next  be 
determined.  For  example,  there  may  be  a  dif- 
ference of  seven  feet  between  the  outlet  and  the 
upper  end  of  the  main,  and  the  distance  is  1,200 
feet.  This  means  that  the  main  may  have  a  fall  of 
five  inches  per  hundred  feet,  which  is  about  right. 
The  main  drain  must  follow  the  lowest  land  from 
the  outlet  to  the  head  of  the  drainage  system,  and 
be  given  as  much  fall  as  possible,  within  a  reason- 
able limit,  so  that  the  lateral  drains  will  have 
sufficient  fall.  The  fields  that  are  most  likely  to 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  211 

need  draining  are  apt  to  be  rather  flat  and  there 
may  be  considerable  difficulty  in  deciding  off-hand 
where  the  lowest  land  is,  and  along  what  line  be- 
tween the  outlet  and  the  upper  part  of  the  field  the 
greatest  fall  may  be  secured.  In  doubtful  cases 
a  level  should  settle  the  question. 

Having  established  the  outlet  and  located  the 
main  drain  on  the  lowest  land,  next  locate  the  lat- 
erals, or  collecting  drains.  The  fall  of  the  entire 
system  must  now  be  considered.  In  general  it 
should  be  from  5  to  8  inches  in  100  feet.  If  this 
grade  can  be  secured  there  should  be  no  difficulty 
in  laying  a  system  that  will  work  perfectly.  But 
very  often  2  or  3  inches  in  100  feet,  or  even  less,  is 
as  much  fall  as  can  be  had.  Excellent  drainage 
systems  are  now  in  operation  that  have  a  fall  of 
2  inches  in  100  feet,  and  there  are  occasional  ex- 
amples of  farm  drainage  systems  that  work  with  a 
fall  of  even  ^-inch  in  100  feet.  But  these  can  be 
constructed  only  with  the  aid  of  a  skilled  engineer. 
In  farm  drainage  a  fall  of  at  least  three  inches 
should  be  sought ;  if  one  must  content  himself  with 
less  grade  he  should  employ  a  surveyor  and  give 
greater  attention  to  the  laying  of  the  tiles. 

On  the  other  hand,  too  much  fall  in  a  drainage 
system  is  equally  undesirable.  A  fall  of  12  inches 
in  100  feet  is  considered  about  the  limit  of  safety. 
A  greater  grade  would  carry  the  water  so  fast  that 
there  would  be  danger  of  loosening  the  tiles.  This 
is  especially  true  on  lighter  soils,  which  frequently 
have  tile  drains  washed  from  them  after  a  very 
heavy  rain.  If  any  of  the  tiles  are  loosened  suffi- 
ciently to  admit  soil  the  whole  system  may  be 
ruined  eventually. 

If  possible  it  is  best  to  have  all  the  drains  laid  at 
a  uniform  grade,  from  the  upper  end  of  the  system 


212  SOILS 

to  the  outlet.  If  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  grade 
it  should  preferably  be  from  a  less  fall  to  a  greater, 
say  from  3  inches  to  4  inches  in  100  feet;  if  the 
grade  is  reduced  there  is  greater  likelihood  that  the 
sediment  in  the  water  will  settle  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  system.  To  avoid  this,  if  a  reduction  in  grade  is 
necessary,  put  a  "silt  basin"  at  the  point  where  the 
change  is  made.  This  is  made  by  sinking  an 
8-inch,  10-inch,  or  12-inch  tile  below  the  level  of  the 
ditch,  and  notching  it  on  one  side  for  the  drainage 
water  to  flow  in,  with  a  lower  notch  on  the  opposite 
side  for  the  first  tile  of  the  new  grade.  The  soil 
dropped  in  here  should  be  cleaned  out  occasionally. 
Carry  the  silt  basin  to  the  surface  with  glazed 
sewer  tile ;  or,  if  the  line  of  tiles  is  large,  dig  a  larger 
basin  and  brick  up  the  sides.  Silt  basins  should 
be  covered  all  the  time  with  iron,  stone,  or  plank  to 
avoid  accidents  and  freezing.  Silt  basins  are  really 
small  wells;  they  enable  the  farmer  to  see  if  his 
drains  are  working  properly,  as  well  as  collect  silt. 
They  may  be  placed  at  the  junction  of  the  sub- 
mains  and  the  mains,  even  if  there  is  no  change  in 
grade,  so  as  to  give  an  opportunity  to  examine  the 
working  of  the  drains. 

DEVICES    FOR   ESTABLISHING    GRADE 

The  most  important  part  of  under-drainage  is 
the  grade.  If  tne  grade  is  insufficient  the  water 
stagnates  and  the  tiles  become  filled  with  soil.  If 
anv  part  of  the  system,  even  a  few  feet  of  it,  is 
below  grade  the  whole  system  suffers.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  securing  the  services  of  a  skilled 
drainage  engineer  if  a  large  area  is  to  be  drained. 
The  use  of  a  surveyor's  level  is  not  indispensable 
to  good  draining,  out  is  extremely  helpful.  If  a 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  213 

small  area  is  to  be  drained,  and  the  land  is  not 
very  flat  satisfactory  work  may  be  done  by  a  care- 
ful man  without  a  level. 

A  Home-made  Level. — There  are  many  simple 
devices  for  establishing  a  grade.  King  recom- 
mends a  "water  level,"  which  is  easily  made  at 
home.  It  is  made  of  a  piece  of  f-inch  gas 
pipe,  four  feet  long,  with  a  T  exactly  in  the 
center  and  ah  elbow  at  each  end.  A  piece  of 
pipe  about  six  feet  long  is  inserted  in  the  T 
and  sharpened  at  the  lower  end,  making  the 
standard  which  is  thrust  into  the  ground.  A 
short  piece  of  glass  tube,  J-inch  in  diameter,  is 
cemented  into  each  L  and  the  top  of  each  tube  is 
fitted  with  a  cork.  Each  tube  should  project 
exactly  the  same  distance  above  the  L.  Fill  the 
gas  pipe  with  water,  coloured  with  ink  or  bluing, 
until  it  just  shows  in  both  of  the  glass  tubes  when 
the  pipe  is  exactly  horizontal.  When  using  this 
improvised  level,  stick  the  standard  firmly  into 
the  ground,  remove  the  corks  and  adjust  it  until  the 
water  shows  that  the  horizontal  pipe  is  perfectly 
level.  Then  step  off  four  or  five  feet  and  sight 
across  the  top  of  the  two  tubes.  If  used  carefully, 
this  instrument  does  quite  accurate  work  for  short 
distances. 

There  are  many  ways  of  using  this  and  other 
kinds  of  levels.  The  simplest  way,  for  drainage 
work  that  is  not  complicated,  is  to  first  set  the  level 
some  50  or  more  feet  from  the  outlet.  Sight  back 
to  the  outlet,  set  the  measuring  rod  on  the  ground 
and  note  the  height  at  which  the  level  sight  strikes 
the  rod.  It  may  be  4  feet  6  inches,  for  example. 
With  the  instrument  in  the  same  position  find 
the  height  at  which  the  sight  strikes  a  rod ,  set  about 
50  feet  in  the  opposite  direction,  along  the  line  which 


214  SOILS 

it  is  supposed  the  drain  will  run;  say  at  5  feet. 
The  difference  between  the  back-sight  and  the 
fore-sight  is  thus  six  inches,  showing  that  the 
land  has  a  fall  of  6  inches  in  100  feet,  or  in  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  points  at  which  the  rod 
stood.  The  instrument  may  now  be  moved 
forward  and  similar  measurements  taken  for  the 
remainder  of  the  main  and  for  the  laterals. 
The  fall  that  the  entire  system  can'  have  is  thus 
determined. 

The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  stake  out  the 
drains.  Beginning  at  the  outlet  drive  into  the 

f  round  a  stout  peg  8  or  10  inches  long  until  it  is 
ush  with  the  surface.  Drive  similar  pegs  50 
feet  apart  along  the  line  where  the  ditch  will 
come  and  about  12  inches  to  one  side  of  the 
centre  of  the  ditch.  About  a  foot  from  these 
"grade  pegs"  drive  "finders,"  stakes  which  project 
a  foot  above  the  ground  and  guide  one  to  the 
grade  pegs. 

The  work  of  determining  the  grade  and  depth  of 
the  ditch  may  now  be  begun,  using  the  level  as 
indicated  above  and  taking  the  height  of  the  top  of 
each  grade  peg  by  placing  the  rod  upon  it.  Thus, 
if  it  has  been  determined  that  the  drain  may  have 
a  fall  of  4  inches  in  100  feet,  at  which  grade  it  will 
be  3  feet  6  inches  deep  at  the  outlet,  if  the  next 
grade  peg  is  four  inches  higher  than  that  at  the 
outlet  it  shows  that  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  at  that 
point  should  be  3  feet  and  8  inches  below  the  level 
of  the  grade  peg.  Measurements  are  taken  all 
along  the  line  in  the  same  way  and  the  depth  which 
the  ditch  should  be  at  each  fifty-foot  point  is  re- 
corded in  a  book,  and  oh  each  of  the  finder  stakes. 
When  laying  the  tile  a  cord  is  stretched  along 
the  tops  of  the  grade  stakes  and  the  depth  for  laying 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  215 

is  determined  with  the  aid  of  a  measuring  rod, 
which  has  an  arm  at  a  right  angle  and  long  enough 
to  reach  to  the  line. 

A  Sighting  Method. — Brooks  recommends  a 
simpler  and  scarcely  less  accurate  device  for  secur- 
ing the  right  grade.  Drive  two  stakes  at  the  outlet, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  position  of  the  ditch, 
so  that  when  firm  their  tops  are  a  little  over  six 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  drain  at  the  outlet.  Thus 
if  the  outlet  must  be  3  feet  8  inches  deep  the  tops  of 
the  stakes  will  be  a  little  over  2  feet  4  inches  above 
the  level  of  the  ground.  Nail  a  light,  narrow  board 
from  stake  to  stake  so  that  the  top  of  it  will  be  level 
and  exactly  six  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  drain. 
Go  to  the  upper  end  of  the  drain  and  place  a  similar 

frade  board  just  6  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the 
itch  there;    if  the  drain  is  300  feet  long,  and  a 
grade  of  3  inches  in  100  feet  can  be  secured,  this 
grade  board  will  be  nailed  9  inches  above  the  sur- 
face. 

At  intervals  of  50  feet  on  the  line  of  the 
drain  set  similar  pairs  of  stakes.  The  height  at 
which  to  nail  the  grade  boards  on  these  is  deter- 
mined by  sighting  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
grade  boards,  or  vice  versa.  Dig  the  ditch  nearly 
to  the  desired  depth.  Now  stretch  a  stout  cord 
very  tightly  from  the  top  of  the  grade  board  at  the 
outlet  to  the  top  of  the  grade  board  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  drain,  and  midway  between  the  stakes, 
where  the  centre  of  the  drain  should  be.  Brace 
the  upper  and  lower  grade  boards  to  prevent  the 
line  from  sagging.  When  the  ditch  is  completed 
the  bottom  at  all  points  should  be  exactly  six  feet 
below  the  cord. 

The  success  of  this  device  depends  upon  the 
accuracy  with  which  the  sighting  is  done  and  the 


216  SOILS 

grade  boards  nailed,  upon  a  taut  cord,  and  care- 
ful measuring  to  the  cord.  The  latter  operation 
is  done  with  a  rod  and  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  hold  it  exactly  vertical.  A  spirit  level  will  aid  in 
this.  See  that  the  cord  does  not  stretch  during 
changes  in  the  weather.  When  carefully  executed 
this  simple  method  of  grading  gives  very  satis- 
factory results. 

There  are  many  other  home-made  devices  for 
establishing  grades,  as  the  walking  level,  and  those 
in  which  a  spirit  level  is  used.  When  the  field 
has  a  noticeable  slope  a  careful  workman  can  make 
a  fairly  accurate  grade  by  simply  watching  the 
flow  of  water  in  the  ditch.  But  it  is  not  best  to 
depend  upon  the  eye  alone,  except,  perhaps,  for 
very  small  fields  which  have  a  pronounced  slope. 

THE    NUMBER   AND    DIRECTION    OF    DRAINS 

This  is  determined  by  the  contour  of  the  land  and 
the  character  of  the  soil.  If  a  more  or  less  con- 
tinuous depression  runs  through  the  field,  some- 
where near  the  middle,  the  drains  would  probably 
have  but  one  outlet,  with  one  main  following  the 
depression,  and  with  laterals  running  obliquely 
from  it  to  the  surrounding  higher  land,  unless 
something  could  be  gained  by  a  short  cut.  If 
there  were  two  depressions  there  might  be  two 
mains,  which  woula  unite  to  make  one  outlet.  If 
the  whole  field  slopes  slightly  in  one  direction,  say 
toward  an  open  ditch,  the  water  in  which  never 
rises  above  the  point  at  which  the  outlet  of  the 
drains  would  be,  mains  might  be  dispensed  with 
altogether  and  the  field  drained  by  parallel  lines  of 
small  tile  running  from  the  upper  end  of  the  field 
to  the  ditch,  each  having  an  independent  outlet. 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  217 

The  mains  should  make  sweeping  curves, 
not  abrupt  ones.  The  laterals  also  may  join  the 
mains  at  any  angle,  depending  entirely  upon  the 
grade.  If  the  main  is  in  a  marked  depression  it 
may  be  necessary  to  run  the  laterals  nearly  parallel 
with  it  for  some  distance,  so  as  not  to  make  their 
fall  too  great,  making  a  long  acute  angle;  but 
if  the  main  is  in  a  very  slight  depression 
the  laterals  may  be  almost  or  quite  at  right 
angles  to  it.  In  any  case  they  should  be 
given  a  slight  curve  before  they  join  the  main, 
so  that  the  water  may  be  carried  into  the  main 
with  the  current,  not  across  it. 

When  draining  land  that  has  a  marked  slope  the 
lines  of  the  tile  may  be  run  up  and  down  the  slope, 
across  it,  or  obliquely.  If  there  are  springs  on 
the  slope  these  will  be  cut  off  most  effectively 
by  cross-slope  drainage,  otherwise  it  makes  little 
difference  which  method  is  chosen  except  for  the 
difference  in  fall.  Most  drainage, engineers  prefer 
to  run  the  drain  obliquely  down  the  slope  when- 
ever it  is  expedient. 

There  are  thus  many  systems  of  laying  out  tile 
drains,  each  of  which  has  merits  under  certain 
conditions.  The  contour  of  the  land,  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  the  position  of  the  outlet  usually 
decide  this  question.  In  fact,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  put  in  a  combination  of  several  systems  on  one 
field,  because  of  the  variation  in  contour.  In 
planning  any  system  of  tile  drains  the  aim  should 
be  to  use  3-inch  tiles  in  preference  to  larger 
sizes,  wherever  they  can  do  the  work,  for  the 
larger  size  of  tiles  add  greatly  to  the  expense  of 
the  system.  Every  fjeld  is  a  new  problem;  no 
one  can  tell  how  the  drains  ought  to  run  without 
studying  the  field. 


218  SOILS 

DISTANCE   BETWEEN    UNDER-DRAINS 

This  depends  chiefly  upon  the  nature  of  the 
subsoil  and  the  depth  of  the  drains.  The  ease 
with  which  water  can  pass  through  the  subsoil  to 
the  drains  would  naturally  have  much  influence  in 
determining  the  distance  apart  of  the  laterals. 
Water  will  pass  to  the  drains  through  a  sandy  sub- 
soil from  ten  to  one  hundred  times  more  rapidly 
than  through  a  stiff  clay  subsoil.  The  coarser  the 
subsoil  and  the  freer  it  is  from  hard-pan  the  more 
readily  does  water  move  to  the  drains  and  the 
farther  apart  they  may  be  placed.  In  other  words, 
the  more  open  the  subsoil  is  the  farther  apart 
should  the  drains  be,  for  the  excess  water  in  such 
soils  quickly  drains  off.  The  movement  of  water 
in  compact  subsoils  is  very  slow. 

The  depth  of  drains  should  be  considered  in 
deciding  their  distance  apart;  the  deeper  they  are 
the  lower  do  they  make  the  water-table.  Under- 
drains  do  not  lower  the  water-table  of  the  entire 
field  to  their  own  level.  At  the  point  where  the 
drains  are  placed  it  is  lowered  to  that  level,  but 
midway  between  two  lines  of  drains  it  may  be 
several  inches  or  even  several  feet  higher,  depend- 
ing upon  the  openness  of  the  soil  and  the  ease  with 
which  water  passes  through  it  laterally.  The 
water-table  of  an  undrained  field  is  a  series  of 
curves  or  crescents,  the  lower  ends  of  each  curve 
being  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  drains.  So 
the  deeper  drains  are  placed  the  farther  apart  they 
may  be  without  danger  of  the  water-table  coming 
too  near  the  surface,  midway  between  the  lines  of 
drains. 

The  common  distances  apart  for  laying  tile 
drains  are  20  to  30  feet  on  deep,  very  compact  clays ; 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  219 

40  to  70  feet  on  average  loams  with  a  rather  open 
subsoil,  and  100  and  even  200  feet  on  very  open 
soils.  A  safe  distance  for  average  loam  soils  in 
the  Eastern  and  Central  States  is  40  to  50  feet,  if 
the  depth  is  not  less  than  3J  feet;  and  25  to  40  feet 
on  heavy  clay  soils.  Many  fields  may  be  ex- 
cellently drained  with  some  lines  of  tile  40  feet  and 
some  100  feet  apart,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil  in  different  parts. 

DEPTH    OF   UNDER-DRAINS 

The  deeper  the  drains  are  placed,  within  reason- 
able limits,  the  better  they  work.  But  beyond  a 
certain  depth  the  expense  of  moving  soil  increases 
faster  than  the  advantage  gained  in  the  way  of 
better  drainage.  In  certain  soils  it  may  cost  about 
twice  as  much  to  dig  a  ditch  four  feet  deep  as  it 
does  one  three  feet  deep.  For  ordinary  farm  crops 
the  depth  to  which  the  ground  water  should  be 
lowered  need  not  be  over  four  feet,  and  frequently 
less.  If  the  land  is  too  wet  only  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  and  it  is  desired  merely  to 
lower  the  water-table  sufficiently  to  dry  out  the 
land  quickly  in  early  spring,  drains  placed  two 
and  one-half  or  three  feet  deep  will  usually 
answer  the  purpose. 

It  may  happen  that  the  only  available  outlet  is 
so  high  that  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  drains  at  less 
depth  than  what  is  considered  best,  so  as  to  secure 
sufficient  fall  for  the  entire  system.  Again,  if  the 
field  has  a  sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil  some  four  or 
five  feet  below  the  surface,  it  would  be  unwise 
to  place  the  drains  so  deep  that  the  water-table 
would  be  lowered  into  the  sand  or  gravel,  because 
this  coarse  soil  has  poor  capillary  power  and  the  soil 


220  SOILS 

above  it  would  be  but  poorly  supplied  with  film 
water  after  the  water-table  is  lowered  into  it.  In 
the  Northern  States  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
lay  tiles  below  the  frost  line  anyway,  for  they  are 
easily  heaved  and  cracked  by  frost.  This  means 
a  depth  of  two  to  three  feet,  and  even  four 
feet  in  the  northern  prairie  states.  In  the 
Red  River  Valley  of  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas  the  ground  freezes  six  feet  deep, 
and  there  is  much  doubt  as  to  whether  tile 
drains  are  practicable  there.  It  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  try  to  place  drains  so  deep  that  the 
roots  of  ordinary  crops  will  not  enter  them,  for 
these  roots  commonly  run  from  five  to  ten  feet 
deep. 

The  best  depth  for  drains  on  average  soils  is 
three  and  one-naif  to  four  feet.  There  are  few 
cases  where  lateral  drains  should  be  five  feet,  or 
over,  but  mains  are  frequently  laid  at  that  depth. 
It  is  rarely  expedient  to  lay  deep  drains  in  stiff  soils ; 
shallow  drains  are  much  better,  for  water  moves 
slowly  through  heavy  soils.  Land  that  is  to  be 
permanently  in  grass  may  have  the  drains  laid 
more  shallow,  not  only  because  the  grass  will 
prevent  the  ground  from  freezing  so  deep,  but  also 
because  grass  thrives  when  the  water-table  is 
nearer  the  surface  than  is  best  for  most  tilled  crops. 
Under-drains  in  such  lands  are  often  laid  two  and 
one-half  to  three  feet  deep  with  excellent  results, 
especially  if  the  soil  is  not  very  heavy.  Thirty 
inches  is  about  the  minimum  depth,  under  any 
circumstances,  at  which  it  is  practicable  to  lay 
drains.  When  laying  drains  in  peaty  land 
make  allowance  for  the  settling  and  shrinking 
of  the  soil  from  the  decay  of  the  vegetable 
matter. 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS 

KINDS   OF  TILES 

At  least  eight  styles  of  tile  have  been  used  since 
the  beginning  of  tile  drainage,  but  at  the  present 
time  practically  all  farm  under-drainage  is  done 
with  round  tiles.  Sole  and  double-sole  tiles,  which 
are  flat  on  one,  two,  or  four  sides,  are  heavier  and 
can  be  joined  together  only  in  two  ways;  whereas  a 
round  tile  can  be  joined  to  its  neighbour  at  any  point. 
Six  or  eight-sided  tiles  with  a  round  bore  are  quite 
popular  in  the  West  and  have  all  the  merits  of 
round  tiles,  except  that  collars  cannot  be  used  with 
them,  which  is  unnecessary  in  most  cases.  How- 
ever, they  have  no  advantage  over  ordinary  round 
tile  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they  can  be  laid  as  rapidly. 

There  are  a  number  of  special  forms  of  tiles  for 
certain  uses.  "Elbows"  or  L's  are  made  in  all 
sizes,  either  with  a  slight  curve  or  a  curve  of  45 
degrees.  They  are  used  principally  for  the  mains. 
At  the  point  wnere  a  lateral  empties  into  the  main, 
or  a  sub-main  into  the  main,  "junction  pieces," 
or  branch  tiles,  are  necessary.  These  may  be  Y's 
or  T's,  the  Y's  usually  being  preferred.  The  use  of  a 
Y  is  almost  indispensable  at  junctions,  in  order  to 
prevent  an  accumulation  of  soil  and  displacement 
of  the  tiles  at  that  point.  "Collars"  are  tile  rings 
two  or  three  inches  long,  which  are  slipped  over  the 
outside  of  the  tiles  to  cover  the  joint.  They  pre- 
vent soil  from  washing  in  and  hold  the  tiles  in  place ; 
but  they  cost  so  much  and  the  incovenience  of 
applying  them  is  so  great  that  they  are  impracticable 
except  where  there  is  great  danger  of  tiles  being 
displaced,  as  where  the  fall  is  sharp  and  the 
soil  rather  light.  "Enlarging  tiles,"  wnich  taper, 
are  useful  at  the  point  where  the  drain  changes 
from  one  size  to  a  larger  size,  as  from  a  3-inch 


222  SOILS 

to  a  4-inch,  making  the  joint  much  more  perfect 
than  if  the  3-inch  tile  were  butted  against  the 
larger  one. 

When  buying  tiles  it  is  important  to  stipulate 
that  all  be  perfect.  Some  lots  of  tiles  contain 
many  that  are  not  fit  to  be  used  in  a  drainage 
system;  one  poor  tile  may  undo  the  work  of  many 
good  ones.  Good  drainage  tiles  do  not  crumble 
and  when  struck  on  iron  have  a  ringing,  metallic 
sound,  not  a  dull,  wooden  sound,  showing  that  they 
have  been  well  burnt.  Tiles  that  are  baaly  warped 
or  chipped  at  the  ends  are  worse  than  useless. 
They  should  be  smooth  inside  and  cut  square  on 
the  ends.  Glazed  tiles  are  more  durable  than 
unglazed,  but  there  is  little  difference  in  efficiency. 

SIZE    OF   TILES 

A  system  of  tile  drainage  should  have  sufficient 
capacity  to  carry  off  the  excess  water  of  the  heaviest 
rains  that  fall,  inside  of  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours.  The  time  when  under-drains  are  most 
taxed  is  in  early  spring  when  the  soil  is  already 
saturated.  The  greater  the  fall  of  the  system  the 
smaller  the  tiles  may  be,  because  water  is  carried 
off  more  rapidly.  Formerly  1-  and  1^-inch  tiles 
were  quite  commonly  used  for  lateral  drains;  now 
2-inch  tiles  are  the  smallest  used,  for  it  costs  but 
little  more  to  make  them  than  the  smaller  sizes. 
They  are  easier  to  lay  to  grade  and  safer.  Two- 
inch  tiles  are  still  used  in  the  Eastern  States,  but 
not  so  much  as  formerly,  being  largely  replaced  by 
the  3-inch  size. 

The  sizes  of  mains  and  sub-mains  are  capable 
of  fairly  accurate  calculations,  as  their  capacity 
varies  with  the  square  of  their  diameters. 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  223 

Wheeler  makes  the  following  estimate  of  the 
relative  capacity  of  different  sizes  of  tiles: 

A  2^-in.  tile  will  carry  1  \  times  as  much  water  as  a  2-in.  tile 
"  3     "     "      "       "      2£     "       "       "          "       "  "  "  "      " 

«   i      ••     ••      «       «      -       «       «       «          «       «  «  «  «      « 


An  8     "    "      "       "    25       "       "       "         "      "  ""  "      " 

Chamberlain  gives  these  rules  for  estimating  the 
size  of  mains:  When  the  fall  is  not  more  than  3 
inches  in  100  feet  the  diameter  of  the  tiles  should  be 
squared  and  the  result  divided  by  4.  Thus  a 
3-inch  main  will  drain  2J  acres;  a  4-inch  main, 
4  acres;  a  5-inch  main,  6J  acres;  and  so  on.  When 
the  fall  is  greater  than  3  inches,  square  the  diameter 
and  divide  by  3.  In  this  case  a  3-inch  main  will 
drain  3  acres;  a  4-inch  main,  5^  acres;  a  5-inch 
main,  8^  acres  ;  a  6-inch  main,  12  acres,  etc.  These 
rules  have  been  found  to  be  quite  reliable  on 
ordinary  soils. 

On  heavy  soils  the  different  sizes  will  drain 
more  than  the  area  given,  as  water  moves  through 
them  more  slowly.  Elliott  says,  "For  drains 
not  more  than  500  feet  long  a  2-inch  tile  will 
drain  2  acres.  Lines  more  than  500  feet  long 
should  not  be  laid  of  2-inch  tiles.  A  3-inch  tile  will 
drain  5  acres  and  should  not  be  of  greater  length 
than  1,000  feet.  A  4-inch  tile  will  drain  12  acres; 
a  5-inch  tile,  20;  a  6-inch,  40;  and  a  7-inch  tile,  60 
acres."  The  capacity  of  tiles  is  thus  seen  to  vary 
widely  in  the  judgment  of  experts.  The  size  of 
the  main  increases  as  it  proceeds  toward  the 
outlet  and  receives  the  drainage  of  the  larger 
area. 


224  SOILS 

DIGGING   THE    DITCH 

The  largest  expense  of  establishing  a  system  of 
under-drainage  is  in  moving  the  soil.  Many  steam 
and  horse-power  machines  have  been  invented  for 
doing  this  work,  but  most  of  it  is  still  done  by  hand. 
Most  of  the  machines  require  more  power  than  can 
ordinarily  be  furnished  conveniently;  but  some, 
that  are  designed  merely  to  loosen  the  surface,  are 
very  serviceable.  If  a  large  area  is  to  be  drained 
it  will  be  economy  to  hire  men  who  have  had  expe- 
rience in  the  business,  when  they  can  be  had. 

In  order  that  no  more  soil  may  be  moved  than  is 
absolutely  necessary,  it  is  customary  to  stretch  a 
stout  line  4  or  5  inches  back  from  where  one  side 
of  the  ditch  should  be  and  cut  true  to  the  line.  The 
width  of  the  ditch  on  the  surface  need  not  exceed  20 
inches,  even  for  large  mains,  and  12  or  15  inches  is 
ample  for  lateral  drains.  Beginners  always  dig 
ditches  wider  than  is  necessary.  The  ditches 
should  taper  downward  evenly,  being  but  4  or  5 
inches  wide  on  the  bottom,  if  3-inch  tiles  are  to  be 
laid.  In  case  the  drains  are  laid  more  than  4  feet 
deep  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  them  a  few  inches 
wider. 

The  surface  soil  may  be  partly  moved  with  a 
plow  if  it  is  not  very  heavy  or  very  stony.  After 
the  line  is  stretched  a  very  deep  furrow  is  turned 
with  an  ordinary  plow,  which  may  then  be  followed 
by  a  trenching  plow,  or  another  furrow  may  be 
turned  with  a  landside  plow.  Part  of  the  soil  is 
thus  moved  out,  and  part  is  so  loosened  that  it  is 
handled  easier.  The  trench  is  then  finished  with 
a  spade.  Many,  however,  prefer  to  open  the 
entire  ditch  with  a  spade.  An  ordinary  spade 
answers  the  purpose  for  a  small  job,  but  a  ditching 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  225 

spade,  which  has  a  narrow,  curved  blade  about  18 
inches  long,  is  preferable. 

The  soil  snould  oe  placed  on  the  edge  of  the  ditch, 
not  thrown  away  from  it.  Both  surface  and  subsoil 
are  placed  upon  the  same  side  of  the  ditch,  and  usu- 
ally it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  them  separate.  In 
some  cases  it  may  be  cheaper  to  have  the  ditch  dug 
by  contract,  except  grading  the  bottom  to  receive  the 
tiles,  which  should  be  done  by  an  experienced  and 
careful  hand.  If  quicksand  is  encountered  the  sides 
of  the  ditch  will  need  to  be  supported  with  boards, 
braced  by  sticks  between  them.  Besides  the  spade, 
a  tile  hoe  is  a  convenient  but  not  indispensable 
tool.  It  is  used  for  cleaning  out  and  grading  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch.  It  comes  in  various  sizes, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  tiles  laid,  and  makes  a 
half-round  groove  into  which  the  tiles  fit  snugly. 

Ditching  should  be  begun  at  the  outlet  ana  the 
main  should  be  laid  back  to  the  first  lateral.  This 
junction  is  then  made  and  two  or  three  tiles  of  the 
lateral  are  laid  before  the  main  is  laid  further. 

LAYING   TILES 

It  is  well  to  begin  laying  the  tiles  as  soon  as  a 
strip  of  ditch  is  graded,  for  if  a  storm  arises 
enough  water  may  run  into  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  to  spoil  the  grade.  Usually  it  is  best  to  begin 
laying  the  tiles  at  the  lower  end  of  the  system. 
They  are  first  placed  in  a  line  along  the  edge  of 
the  ditch.  The  man  who  lays  the  tiles  may  stand 
in  the  ditch  or  he  may  stand  on  the  edge  of  it  and 
handle  the  tiles  with  tile  hooks,  with  which  they 
may  be  turned  and  twisted  until  the  joints  are 
satisfactory.  Professional  tile  layers  often  do 
very  rapid,  and  satisfactory  work  without  getting 


226  SOILS 

into  the  ditch;  inexperienced  men  had  better  lay 
the  tiles  by  hand. 

The  joints  should  be  as  close  as  possible;  here  is 
the  place  for  extreme  care.  There  is  no  danger 
that  water  will  not  enter  the  tiles  freely  enough, 
even  with  the  closest  joints,  but  there  is  always 
danger  that  soil  will  wash  into  the  tiles.  All  tiles 
have  a  slight  curve;  turn  them  in  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  until  they  fit  against  each  other  snugly. 
If  junction  or  branch  tiles  are  not  used  at  the 
junction  of  the  laterals  with  the  main,  the  former 
may  be  let  into  the  latter  through  a  hole  cut  into 
the  main  with  a  small  pick  or  short,  pointed  hammer; 
but  the  two  should  be  joined  very  neatly  and  the 
joint  packed  with  clay.  A  better  way  is  to  pick  a 
nole  in  the  top  of  the  main,  another  near  the  end  of 
the  last  tile  of  the  lateral,  and  place  the  two  open- 
ings together  after  plugging  the  end  of  the  lateral 
with  a  stone  and  clay.  Some  drainage  experts 
think  it  pays  to  put  cloth,  paper,  sod,  and 
other  coarse  materials  over  tne  joints  before 
filling  in  the  soil:  others  find  this  is  not 
necessary. 

FILLING   THE    DITCH 

In  filling  the  ditch  be  especially  careful  not  to 
displace  the  tiles  and  to  get  the  soil  packed  tightly 
about  them,  so  that  there  may  be  no  chance  for  a 
water  channel  outside  the  tiles.  Usually  it  is  best 
to  cover  the  tiles  four  to  eight  inches  deep  as  fast 
as  they  are  laid,  using  the  soil  last  thrown  out,  if 
it  is  clay.  This  is  done  by  a  man  in  the  ditch 
following  the  man  who  lays  the  tiles,  while  a  third 
man  on  the  bank  shovels  in  soil,  being  careful  not 
to  throw  in  large  stones.  This  is  tramped  around 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  227 

and  over  the  tiles,  care  being  taken  not  to  move 
them  out  of  line. 

The  remainder  of  the  ditch  is  filled  very  rapidly 
in  any  way  that  is  handiest.  An  ordinary  scoop 
scraper  may  be  used  if  the  team  is  hitched  to  it  by 
a  long  chain  and  works  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
ditch.  Sometimes  the  ditch  may  be  filled  most 
economically  entirely  by  hand.  A  wooden  scraper 
shaped  like  a  snow  plow  drawn  backward  is  some- 
times serviceable  for  filling  a  ditch  when  the  soil  is 
mellow.  A  road  scraper  is  very  serviceable  for 
finishing  the  filling  after  the  ditch  is  nearly  closed. 
It  is  well  to  tramp  the  soil  several  times  in  the 
process  of  filling.  Leave  the  soil  around  the  ditch 
rounded,  for  it  will  settle.  It  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  to  fill  in  the  subsoil  first  and  the  surface 
soil  last,  but  this  should  be  done  as  far  as  is 
convenient. 

OBSTRUCTIONS   IN   TILE    DRAINS 

If  the  grade  is  too  flat  to  carry  off  the  water 
before  the  sediment  in  it  settles,  or  if  any  tiles  are 
displaced,  the  drains  may  soon  become  partially 
filled  with  soil.  This  is  especially  likely  to  occur 
when  the  subsoil  is  clay.  The  time  of  greatest 
danger  is  the  first  two  years;  after  that  the  soil 
becomes  compacted  about  the  joints.  It  is  some- 
times necessary  to  dig  up  poorly  laid  tile  drains 
every  three  or  four  years  and  clean  out  the  mud  in 
them.  When  the  fall  is  sharp  and  uniform,  and 
the  joints  well  made,  there  ought  not  to  be  any 
trouble  from  this  source. 

The  filling  of  tiles  by  the  roots  of  trees  is  another 
possible  cause  of  trouble.  These  often  enter  the 
joints  and  fill  the  interior  of  the  tiles  with  a  dense 


228  SOILS 

wad  of  small  roots,  completely  closing  the  bore. 
Willows,  elms,  white  maples  and  other  water-loving 
trees  are  the  worst  offenders.  If  possible,  avoid 
laying  drains  within  thirty  to  sixty  feet  of  trees, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  trees.  If  a  line  of  tiles 
must  run  close  to  a  tree  use  sewer  pipe  near 
it  and  cement  the  joints.  This  is  the  great 
difficulty  in  tile-draining  orchard  land.  The 
roots  of  other  farm  crops  rarely  clog  a  tile 
drain.  The  obstruction  of  drains  by  animals, 
as  frogs,  muskrats  and  rats,  is  prevented  by 
covering  the  outlet  with  wire  netting  or  iron 
grating. 

When  a  drain  is  clogged  the  land  near  the  ob- 
struction gradually  becomes  wet,  and  but  little 
water  flows  from  the  outlet.  A  partial  obstruction 
may  sometimes  be  removed  by  flushing,  which 
is  done  by  closing  the  outlet  of  the  drain  until 
the  drain  and  the  surrounding  soil  are  filled 
with  water,  then  opening  it.  The  comparative 
level  at  which  water  stands  in  small  deep 
holes  dug  parallel  to  the  suspected  drain 
will  usually  locate  the  exact  point  of  an  ob- 
struction. 

COST   OF   LAYING   TILE   DKAINS 

->  This  is  from  $12.00  to  $60.00  per  acre  according 
to  the  number  of  ditches  opened,  the  nature  of 
the  soil  and  the  cost  of  tiles  and  labor.  The  more 
the  larger  sizes  of  tiles  are  used  the  greater  is  the 
expense.  The  expense  of  digging  the  ditch  and  lay- 
ing the  tiles  should  average  about  $3.00  to  $4.00  per 
100  feet  for  laterals,  and  more  proportionately 
for  the  mains.  The  cost  of  tiles  varies  greatly; 
the  list  prices  of  the  manufacturers  are  usually 


THE  PLOW  MAY  BE  USED  TO  FACILITATE  THE  REMOVAL  OF 
SURFACE  SOIL  FOR  DRAINS 

Usually,  however,  the  work  is  done  entirely  with  a  ditching  spade 


77.     OUTLET  OF  A  TILE  DRAIN  CLOGGED  BY  SOIL  SO  THAT 
THE  DRAIN  DOES  NOT  WORK 

It  should  be  kept  free  of  all  obstructions,  and  is  preferably  bricked  up.     A  wire  screen 
keeps  out  small  animals  that  might  obstruct  the  drain 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS 


subject  to  large  discounts.     On  an  average  they 
will  cost: 

2-inch  tile  $1.00   per  100  feet 

2$  "  "  1.30 

3  "  "  1.50 

4  "  "  2.25 

5  "  "  3.75 

6  "  "  4.50 

7  "  "  6.80 

8  "  "  9.00 

The  cost  of  tiles  for  mains  is  thus  two  or  more 
times  as  much  as  for  laterals;  hence  the  necessity 
for  making  the  main  as  direct  and  short  as  possible. 
The  expense  of  filling  the  ditch  may  be  estimated 
at  from  thirty  to  forty  cents  per  hundred  feet. 
Professional  drainage  engineers  usually  figure  on 
a  total  cost  of  from  $15.00  to  $25.00  per  acre  when 
a  large  field  under  average  conditions  is  to  be 
drained.  If  an  inexperienced  man  does  the  work 
it  is  likely  to  cost  much  more  than  this. 

OTHER   KINDS   OF   UNDER-DRAINS 

Before  tile  drains  were  perfected,  various 
other  materials  were  used,  chief  of  which  were 
stones,  plank  and  brush.  Very  rarely  are  any 
of  these  drains  practicable  now;  tile  drains  are 
usually  cheaper  and  always  more  serviceable. 
When  flat  stones  are  abundant  a  stone  drain 
may  be  feasible,  but  it  costs  as  much  to  put  in  a 
good  stone  drain  as  a  tile  drain.  The  large,  flat 
stones  are  laid  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  channel. 
If  there  are  many  stones  on  the  surface  these  can 
be  thrown  in  above  the  drain.  Stone  drains  are 
very  likely  to  clog  with  soil,  as  the  joints  are  so 
poor. 


230  SOILS 

Box  drains  are  made  of  three  or  four  2-inch 
planks,  with  short  pieces  of  laths  between  the 
larger  joints  to  provide  an  opening  for  the  water 
to  enter  the  dram.  They  are  cheaper  than  stone 
drains,  but  quickly  decay.  On  newly  cleared 
land,  brush  and  pole  drains  are  occasionally  used, 
especially  if  chestnut  or  cedar  wood  is  abundant. 
The  brush  is  piled  in  the  bottom  of  a  ditch  and 
covered  with  soil.  Pole  drains  are  made  by  laying 
three  small  logs  so  as  to  form  a  channel.  Botn 
are  crude  and  temporary  at  best,  giving  poor  or 
fair  service  for  only  a  few  years.  "Mole  drains," 
made  by  drawing  a  conical  piece  of  wood  through 
the  soil  by  steam  power  at  a  depth  of  two  or  three 
feet,  have  been  known  to  do  fairly  good  work  for 
several  years  in  clay  soils,  but  they  cost  nearly  half 
as  much  as  tile  drainage  and  are  not  permanent. 
All  these  kinds  of  drains  are  most  successful  on 
clay  soils.  After  having  gone  to  the  expense  of 
digging  a  ditch  it  is  far  more  practicable  in  most 
cases  to  put  in  tile  drains,  which  are  durable  and 
efficient,  instead  of  these  uncertain  substitutes. 

DRAINING   POT   HOLES 

A  problem  which  many  farmers  would  like  to 
have  solved  is  how  to  drain  low  places  which  are 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  land  so  high  that  it  is 
entirely  inexpedient  to  cut  through  it  for  an  outlet. 
In  many  cases  it  will  cost  more  to  drain  such  places 
than  they  will  be  worth  afterwards,  but  sometimes 
it  will  be  worth  while  to  try  one  of  the  following 
methods:  If  the  land  is  made  wet  almost  entirely 
by  surface  drainage,  it  may  pay  to  dig  a  ditcn 
around  it  to  intercept  the  surface  water.  If  it  is 
found  that  there  is  a  bed  of  sand  or  gravel  within 


THE  DRAINAGE  OF  FARM  SOILS  231 

ten  or  fifteen  feet  of  the  surface,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case,  it  may  be  practicable  to  sink  a  well 
through  the  surface  soil  that  holds  the  water,  which 
is  usually  clay  or  silt,  into  the  more  open  subsoil 
below.  This  well  may  be  filled  with  stones  to 
within  three  or  four  feet  of  the  surface,  and  the 
balance  with  sand  or  soil;  or  it  may  be  stoned  up 
and  used  as  an  outlet  for  tile  drains.  If  expedient, 
this  water  may  be  pumped  out  by  a  windmill  and 
used  for  irrigating  surrounding  fields.  Water- 
loving  trees,  as  willow,  larch  and  white  maple, 
will  do  much  to  drain  these  places  in  summer  when 
in  full  leaf,  but  unfortunately  they  are  of  no  help 
in  early  spring  when  such  lands  are  most  likely 
to  be  wet. 

DRAINING    LARGE   SWAMPS   AND   MARSHES 

Aside  from  its  value  for  improving  farm  soils 
already  under  cultivation,  and  for  bringing  into 
service  meadows  and  small  swamps,  examples  of 
soil  drainage  on  a  large  scale  are  becoming  more 
and  more  numerous.  Shaler  estimates  that  there 
are  over  100,000  square  miles  of  swamp  land  in  the 
Eastern  Atlantic  Coast  States  alone  which  can  be 
reclaimed  and  made  into  profitable  farming  land 
by  drainage.  It  is  estimated  by  one  authority 
that  there  are  600,000,000  acres  of  swamp  land  in 
the  United  States.  Some  of  these  lands,  which 
include  salt  marshes  and  large  fresh-water  swamps 
and  meadows,  are  already  being  reclaimed.  When 
drained  they  usually  become  exceedingly  pro- 
ductive, partly  because  they  contain  so  much 
humus,  and  partly  because  they  are  perfectly  sub- 
watered  at  all  times  of  the  year.  The  great  area 
of  lane1  wrested  from  the  sea  during  half  a  century 


232  SOILS 

by  thrifty  Holland,  equalling  the  combined  areas  of 
Rhode  Island  and  Delaware,  is  an  illustration 
of  what  much  of  our  salt  marsh  land  may  become 
when  diked  and  ditched.  It  is  certain  that  during 
the  next  half  century  immense  drainage  projects 
for  the  reclamation  of  large  swamp  and  marsh 
areas  in  the  East  will  be  no  less  numerous  than 
the  irrigation  projects  for  the  reclamation  of 
the  arid  lands  of  the  West.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  has  an  Office  of  Irri- 
gation and  Drainage  Investigations,  employing 
many  experts,  which  has  assisted  in  the  draining 
of  over  300,000  acres  of  land  during  the  past  three 
years. 


CHAPTER  X 

FARM   IRRIGATION 

IT  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  about  250,000 
square  miles  of  irrigated  land  in  the  world. 
This  great  area  is  receiving  very  large  ad- 
ditions every  year.  The  principal  countries  where 
irrigation  is  now  practised  are  India,  the  United 
States,  Egypt,  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  France, 
England,  Scotland,  in  about  the  order  named. 
Irrigation  is  also  followed  to  a  lesser  extent  in 
Belgium,  Japan,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Argentina,  Australia  and  many  other 
countries.  India  has  25,000,000  acres  under  ditch, 
Egypt  6,000,000,  Italy  3,700,000.  Some  of  the 
irrigation  canals  now  used  in  India  date  from  the 
twelfth  century.  The  British  government  is  ex- 
pending several  hundred  millions  of  dollars  in 
developing  the  Indian  irrigation  systems,  besides 
which  there  are  not  less  than  400,000  private  wells 
used  for  irrigation,  serving  2,000,000  acres.  In 
Italy  the  government  controls  all  the  streams  in 
order  that  they  may  be  available  for  irrigation. 
King  states  that  irrigation  canals  are  so  numerous 
in  Egypt  that  not  one-tenth  of  the  water  of  the  Nile 
reaches  the  Mediterranean. 

In  this  country  irrigation  is  confined  chiefly  to 
the  arid  and  semi-arid  (also  called  sub-humid) 
sections.  In  1902  the  number  of  acres  under 
ditch  was  as  follows: 


233 


234 


SOILS 


AREAS  IRRIGATED  IN  THE  UNITED   STATES,   1902 

From  Census  Bulletin  No.  16. 


Arid  States 


State 
Arizona 
California 
Colorado 
Idaho    . 
Montana 
Nevada . 
New  Mexico 
Oregon 
Utah      . 
Washington 
Wyoming 


Area,  Acres 

247,250 
1,708,720 
1,754,761 

713,595 
1,140,694 

570,001 

254,945 

439,981 

713,621 

154,962 

773,111 

Total  8,471,641  acres 


Semi-arid  States 


State 
Kansas 
Nebraska 
North  Dakota 
Oklahoma 
South  Dakota 
Texas*  . 


Area,  Acres 

28,922 

245,910 

10,384 

3,328 

53,137 

61,768 

Total    403,449  acres 


Rice  States 


State 
Georgia 
Louisiana 
North  Carolina 
South  Carolina 
Texas    . 


*Exclusive  of  rice  irrigation. 


Area,  Acres 

8,581 

387,580 

3,422 

38,220 

168,396 

Total    606,199  acres 


FARM  IRRIGATION 


235 


Humid  States 


State 
Alabama 
Connecticut    . 
Florida 
Maine   . 
Massachusetts 
Mississippi 
New  Jersey   . 
New  York 
Pennsylvania 
Rhode  Island 


Area,  Acres 

95 
379 
8,772 

17 
283 
114 

48 
159 
906 

15 

Total         5,788  acres 
Grand  Total       9,487,077  acres 


Under  date  of  Oct.  23,  1906,  Mr.  Elwood  Meade, 
Chief  of  Irrigation  and  Drainage  Investigations, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  writes: 
"I  think  these  figures  might  be  increased  by  10  per 
cent,  to  represent  the  present  area.  The  increase 
is  very  generally  distributed,  so  that  you  would  not 
be  far  wrong  to  increase  the  area  for  each  state 
10  per  cent." 

The  average  size  of  irrigated  farms  in  arid 
America  is  67  acres.  Practically  two-fifths  of 
the  United  States  is  arid.  The  dryest  and 
warmest  state  is  Arizona.  There  is  no  sharp 
line  between  arid  and  semi-arid  conditions;  in 
dry  seasons  most  of  the  plains  west  of  the 
Missouri  are  arid  or  semi-arid,  while  in  wet 
seasons  the  humid  area  encroaches  upon  this. 
A  belt  of  country  which  is  neither  arid  nor  humid 
extends  through  North  Dakota,  western  Nebraska 
western  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  central  Texas. 
This  is  called  by  some  the  sub-humid,  by  others 
the  semi-arid  region.  It  comprises  over  300,000,000 
acres.  In  wet  seasons  it  produces  good  crops 
without  irrigation. 


236  SOILS 

In  general,  a  country  is  said  to  be  arid  when 
it  has  an  average  rainfall  of  less  than  twenty 
inches.  The  arid  region  of  North  America 
extends  into  Canada  and  Mexico.  Only  a  small 
portion  of  this,  about  70,000,000  acres,  is  desert, 
contrary  to  the  common  notion  in  the  East. 
Most  of  it  supports  more  or  less  vegetation; 
120,000,000  acres  are  lightly  timbered  and 
470,000,000  acres  are  grazing  land. 

The  number  of  acres  of  arid  land  in  the  United 
States  which  it  is  possible  and  practicable  to  irri- 
gate can  be  stated  only  approximately.  Mr.  Meade 
writes:  "A  few  years  ago  75,000,000  acres  was  a 
quite  common  estimate,  but  most  of  those  familiar 
with  the  arid  West  now  make  their  estimates 
smaller.  There  is  at  present  a  strong  tendency  to 
use  less  water  than  was  formerly  used  and  as  the 
demand  for  agricultural  products  increases  greater 
expense  in  securing  water  can  be  borne.  These 
two  influences  would  tend  to  increase  the  area 
which  can  be  irrigated  with  the  existing  water 
supply  under  present  practice,  and  any  statement 
as  to  the  ultimate  extent  of  land  which  can  be 
irrigated  is  little  more  than  a  guess." 

OBJECTS   OF   IRRIGATION 

The  chief  occasions  for  irrigation  are  an  irregular 
or  an  insufficient  rainfall.  The  former  is  char- 
acteristic of  most  all  parts  of  the  United  States; 
the  latter  is  found  mainly  in  western  United  States. 
Most  of  the  irrigation  in  this  country  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  remedying  an  actual  deficiency  in  rainfall, 
out  much  of  it  would  be  unnecessary  if  the  rainfall 
came  at  an  opportune  time.  The  time  when 
crops  need  water  most  is  in  summer  and  if  it  is  not 


II 


IRRIGATING  OLIVES,  FRESNO,  CALIFORNIA,  BY  CHECK  SYSTEM 
Note  construction  of  distributing  ditch 


81.    THE  INTAKE  OF  THE  SUNNYSIDE  CANAL,  YAKIMA  VALLEY, 

WASHINGTON 

Note  the  head-gate.    These  large  canals  are  usually  built  by  corporations 
or  partnerships  of  farmers 


FARM  IRRIGATION  237 

to  be  had  at  that  time  it  profits  nothing  that  the 
soil  is  replenished  with  moisture  in  winter,  unless 
it  can  be  husbanded  by  the  methods  of  "dry  farm- 
ing." 

Irrigation  to  Enrich  the  Land. — A  secondary 
object  of  irrigation,  in  some  cases,  is  to  carry  to  the 
crops  fertilising  material  dissolved  in  water.  In 
sewage  irrigation  this  is  the  principal  object;  but 
fields  are  often  flooded  with  the  water  of  rivers 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  them  with  the 
fine  soil  and  plant  food  held  by  the  water.  Even 
though  the  water  of  a  stream  may  seem  quite  pure 
and  be  very  acceptable  for  drinking,  it  may  contain 
sufficient  plant  food  in  solution,  or  in  the  mud  it 
carries,  to  make  it  worth  while  to  distribute  this 
water  on  land  solely  for  the  sake  of  securing  the 
plant  food  it  contains,  which  is  mostly  left  in  the 
soil  when  the  water  evaporates  or  seeps  down. 
Many  meadows  in  England  and  Scotland  are 
irrigated  chiefly  for  the  fertilising  value  of  the 
water.  Occasionally,  also,  the  fertilisers  that  are 
to  be  applied  to  irrigated  land  are  dissolved  in  the 
water  and  distributed  by  it. 

Another  object  is  to  correct  "  alkali."  Occasion- 
ally irrigation  is  practised  to  change  the  texture 
of  the  soil,  as,  for  example,  to  fill  an  open, 
sandy  soil  with  the  sediment  of  a  muddy  stream. 
But  the  chief  and  almost  the  only  object  of 
irrigation  in  this  country,  as  applied  to  farm- 
ing, is  to  supply  water,  with  the  incidental  benefit 
of  adding  fertility. 

HOW  FAR  THE  NATURAL  SUPPLY  OF  WATER  WILL  GO 

How  dry  a  region  or  a  soil  must  be  in  order  to 
make  irrigation  necessary,  or  in  other  words,  the 


STATE  NORMAL  SCkuA^, 

UOS  HliES  CHU. 


238  SOILS 

least  amount  of  moisture  that  a  soil  must  have  in 
order  to  grow  a  profitable  crop,  varies  widely  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  and  with  different 
soils  in  the  same  section.  It  depends  upon  the 
minimum  amount  of  rainfall,  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  especially  of  the  subsoil,  the  contour  of  the 
land  and  the  kind  of  crop. 

The  amount  of  water  actually  used  in  the 
growth  of  the  different  crops  is  capable  of  fairly 
accurate  calculation.  For  example,  it  is  estimated 
that  it  requires  at  least  four  and  one-half  inches 
of  water  per  acre  to  produce  fifteen  bushels 
of  wheat,  nine  inches  to  produce  thirty  bushels, 
and  so  on.  These  seem  like  small  amounts, 
but,  as  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  IV,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  rainfall  is  lost,  chiefly  by  sur- 
face drainage,  by  evaporation  and  by  leach- 
ing, so  that  scarcely  half  of  the  water  that  falls 
upon  a  soil  may  become  available  for  crops. 
Hence  at  least  eight  to  twelve  inches  of  rainfall  are 
needed  to  produce  a  profitable  crop  of  wheat, 
although  the  wheat  uses  less  than  half  of  it. 

It  is  not  enough,  however,  that  the  amount  of 
rainfall  should  come  up  to  a  certain  standard. 
If  it  does  not  fall  at  the  right  time,  even  larger 
amounts  of  rainfall  do  not  save  a  region  from  the 
necessity  for  irrigation.  Moreover,  if  the  soil  is 
not  retentive  a  rainfall  considerably  in  excess  of 
the  amount  needed  to  produce  a  crop  on  a  more 
retentive  soil  will  not  avail.  Most  of  the  arid 
area  of  the  United  States  has  a  rainfall  of  about 
ten  or  twelve  inches,  but  there  is  a  wide  variation  in 
the  time  when  most  of  this  falls,  and  the  ability 
of  the  various  soils  to  hold  it. 

There  is  a  large  area  in  the  West  where  dry 
farming,  which  is  the  profitable  culture  of  crops 


FARM  IRRIGATION  239 

in  an  arid  or  semi-arid  region  without  the  aid  of 
irrigation,  is  notably  and  increasingly  successful. 
Dry  farming  is  discussed  in  Chapter  V.  Thus  the 
farmer  of  the  semi-arid  Palouse  region,  in  eastern 
Washington  and  eastern  Oregon,  is  able  to  grow 
much  larger  crops  of  wheat  than  the  farmer  in  other 
regions  having  me  same  amount  of  rainfall,  because 
most  of  the  ram  falls  in  winter  and  early  spring,  and 
is  practically  all  absorbed  by  the  soil  as  the  weather 
is  cool  and  there  is  little  evaporation;  whereas,  if 
a  large  portion  of  it  fell  in  summer  the  loss  by 
evaporation  would  be  great.  Then  again,  the  soil 
of  tnis  region — a  deep  oasaltic  ash — is  remarkably 
retentive  of  moisture,  drying  out  very  slowly  and 
giving  up  its  moisture  gradually  to  crops  during 
the  almost  cloudless  summer. 

This  single  illustration  will  emphasise  sufficiently 
the  importance  of  these  points  in  their  relation  to 
irrigation;  that  the  need  of  supplying  more  water 
to  a  soil  in  order  to  make  it  produce  profitable  crops 
depends  not  only  upon  the  actual  amount  of  rain, 
but  also  upon  the  time  when  it  falls,  upon  the  reten- 
tiveness  01  the  soil,  and  upon  the  skill  of  the  farmer 
in  making  the  fullest  use  of  the  natural  supply  of 
water.  Ten  inches  of  rainfall  in  one  section  may 
be  equal  to  sixteen  inches  in  another,  so  far  as  its 
crop-producing  capacity  is  concerned. 

IRRIGATION    IN    HUMID   REGIONS 

In  the  United  States  irrigation  is  resorted  to 
chiefly  as  a  means  of  correcting  an  absolute  defi- 
ciency of  moisture.  It  is  an  arid  and  semi-arid 
farming  practice  and  is  confined  mainly  to  regions 
having  less  than  twenty  inches  of  rainfall.  But 
there  nas  been  much  interest  in  irrigation  in  the 


240  SOILS 

humid  sections  of  the  country.  Many  small  irrL 
gation  systems  are  in  profitable  operation  in  the 
Eastern  States,  aside  from  the  large  areas  of 
rice  and  cranberries  that  are  necessarily  irrigated 
by  flooding. 

The  reason  why  it  sometimes  pays  to  irrigate, 
even  when  the  annual  rainfall  is  forty  to  sixty 
inches,  is  because  of  the  frequency  of  serious 
droughts  during  the  growing  season,  especially 
at  the  time  when  the  crop  is  approaching  maturity. 
Over  a  large  part  of  eastern  United  States  pro- 
tracted summer  droughts  are  common,  and  often 
reduce  very  seriously  the  yields  of  crops.  It  is 
argued  that  if  the  crops  could  have  a  few  irri- 
gations at  these  critical  times  the  gain  in  yield  would 
more  than  pay  for  the  cost  of  establishing  the 
irrigation  plant.  This  contention  has  been  fully 
establishea  in  many  cases.  The  construction  of 
an  irrigation  plant  in  a  humid  region  may  be 
regarded  as  an  insurance  against  unfavourable 
weather  that  may  or  may  not  come.  There  is 
seldom  a  season  when  the  rainfall  in  any  part  of 
humid  United  States  is  so  abundant  and  so  evenly 
distributed  that  one  or  more  irrigations  would  not 
materially  increase  the  yield.  The  almost  universal 
watering  of  lawns  and  gardens  from  the  hydrant 
is  irrigation  on  a  small  and  expensive  scale,  yet 
this  usually  pays. 

The  question,  however,  is  not  whether  any 
benefit  would  be  derived  from  irrigation,  but 
whether  the  benefit  is  commensurate  with  the  cost, 
and  whether  nearly  as  good  results  could  not  be 
secured,  and  much  more  cheaply,  by  better  methods 
of  tilling  the  soil  to  husband  rainfall.  Irrigation 
in  a  humid  climate  may  easily  become  a  cloak  for 
shiftless  tillage.  Undoubtedly  there  are  many  cases 


FARM  IRRIGATION  241 

when  it  will  pay  to  irrigate  in  the  East,  especially 
certain  water-loving  crops,  as  strawberries,  celery, 
raspberries,  blackberries,  grass,  and  garden  vege- 
tables. In  the  East,  however,  it  is  a  question  of 
economics,  not  of  necessity,  as  it  is  in  many  parts  of 
the  West ;  the  point  is  whether  the  increase  in  crops 
will  pay  for  the  extra  expense.  That  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  soil,  the  value  of  the  land,  its 
nearness  to  market,  the  ease  with  which  water  may 
be  secured  and  distributed,  and  many  other  business 
details.  To  illustrate:  It  mi^ht  pay  to  irrigate 
grass  land  in  Connecticut,  which  has  about  forty 
to  fifty  inches  of  rainfall,  if  there  is  a  stream  from 
which  water  can  be  easily  diverted  and  cheaply 
distributed ;  but  it  might  not  pay  to  build  an  expen- 
sive storage  reservoir  for  this  purpose.  It  might 
pay  to  irrigate  a  market  garden  on  high-priced  land 
close  to  the  city,  on  which  the  value  of  the  crops 
may  reach  $300  to  $700  per  acre,  when  it  would 
not  pay  to  irrigate  the  same  crops  grown  on  cheap 
land.  It  must  be  remembered,  also,  that  irrigation 
can  rarely  be  practised  in  the  East  as  economically 
as  it  can  in  the  West,  because  there  the  land  has 
a  fairly  uniform  surface  as  a  rule,  while  Eastern 
farms  are  much  more  frequently  irregular  in  con- 
tour and  difficult  to  irrigate.  Moreover,  it  is 
easier  to  hire  skilled  irrigators  in  the  West  than  in 
the  East.  Most  Eastern  irrigation,  aside  from  cran- 
berry and  rice,  is  on  market-garden  crops  in  the 
suburbs  of  large  cities  near  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
As  a  general  proposition,  then,  irrigation  in 
humid  sections  is  a  matter  of  expediency;  it  may 
pay  or  it  may  not,  according  to  the  conditions.  It 
is  an  entirely  different  question  here  from  what 
it  is  in  arid  regions ;  there  irrigation  is  the  only  way 
to  make  farming  pay.  One  disadvantage  of 


242  SOILS 

irrigating  land  in  a  humid  climate  must  not  be 
overlooked ;  it  is  the  danger  of  a  heavy  rain  coming 
after  an  irrigation,  flooding  or  soaking  the  land. 
This  condition  never  arises  in  an  arid  country. 
If  the  soil  is  heavy  and  tenacious  this  is  a  serious 
objection ;  but  if  it  is  sandy  or  loamy,  so  that  water 
quickly  drains  from  it,  there  is  little  danger  of 
injury  and  these  are  the  Eastern  soils  that  are 
usually  benefited  most  by  irrigation.  The  cost 
of  building  irrigation  systems  should  usually  be 
less  in  a  humid  region  than  in  an  arid  region, 
because  the  supply  of  running  water  is  larger  and 
more  widelv  distributed,  but  the  cost  of  applying 
the  water  is  usually  greater.  The  diverting  of 
water  from  Eastern  streams,  however,  is  attended 
with  much  uncertainty,  because  of  riparian  rights, 
which  are  firmly  adhered  to  in  the  humid  East, 
but  usually  set  aside  in  the  arid  West.  This  fact 
has  discouraged  many  attempts  to  build  irrigation 
systems  in  the  East.  However,  springs  can  be 
utilised  and  most  irrigation  on  a  small  scale  in  the 
East  is  by  pumping  from  springs  and  wells. 

It  seems  likely  that  the  advantages  of  irrigation 
in  the  humid  sections  of  our  country  have  been 
over-estimated.  In  a  majority  of  cases  better 
preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting,  so  that  it 
will  hold  more  water,  and  more  thorough  tillage 
of  the  soil  after  planting,  so  that  little  water  will 
be  lost  by  evaporation,  are  likely  to  be  a  more 
practicable  solution  of  the  drought  question  than 
irrigation.  In  other  words,  the  principles  of  dry 
farming  are  likely  to  be  as  successful  in  mitigating 
the  effects  of  drought  in  humid  sections  as  they  are 
in  making  the  most  of  a  scanty  rainfall  in  semi- 
arid  sections.  Better  tillage,  rather  than  more 
water,  is  the  key  to  the  drought  situation  in  the 


FARM  IRRIGATION  243 

East,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  special  cases  noted 
above. 

SUPPLY  OF  WATER  FOR  IRRIGATION 

The  most  common  source  of  water  for  the  large 
irrigation  systems  is  a  river  or  smaller  stream.  It 
is  extremely  fortunate  that  most  of  the  arid  sections 
of  our  country  are  traversed  by  streams  which  have 
their  origin  in  highlands,  where  the  rainfall  is  much 
greater  than  in  the  plains,  and  so  the  streams  are 
never-failing.  Some  western  streams,  notably  in 
southern  California,  do  not  appear  on  the  surface 
except  in  freshets.  They  exist  below  the  sur- 
face, however,  in  a  very  real  sense,  as  a  well 
defined  body  of  water,  seeping  through  the  soil 
in  a  definite  channel.  Such  streams  may  be 
dammed  below  the  surface  and  used  for  irrigation ; 
or  wells  may  be  sunk  in  or  near  the  dry  river  bed  and 
the  water  pumped  up.  Innumerable  wells  have 
been  sunk  in  southern  California  for  this  purpose, 
especially  during  the  recent  series  of  years  of 
extremely  scanty  rainfall,  ending  in  1900. 

Occasionally  lands  are  irrigated  from  a  lake  or 
pond,  but  more  frequently  from  a  special  storage 
reservoir  made  by  damming  a  stream.  Some  of 
the  most  notable  irrigation  systems  in  the  West  are 
supplied  by  masonry  reservoirs  built  at  a  great 
cost.  It  is  a  part  of  the  Government's  plan,  under 
the  Reclamation  Act,  to  build  immense  reservoirs 
among  the  foothills  for  storing  the  water  derived 
from  the  rain  and  melting  snow  on  the  mountains. 
Whether  covering  a  few  acres  or  many  square 
miles,  these  reservoirs  are  constructed  at  strategic 
points,  as  in  a  natural  depression,  like  a  deep, 
narrow  valley  or  canon  having  only  a  narrow 


244  SOILS 

opening  at  the  lower  end  which  would  need  to 
be  closed. 

Irrigation  Water  from  Springs  and  Wells. — 
Irrigation  from  springs  and  wells  is  of  far  greater 
importance  in  India  and  in  parts  of  Africa  than  in 
the  United  States;  most  of  our  irrigation  is  done 
from  streams.  In  eastern  United  States,  however, 
it  is  frequently  practicable  to  supplement  the 
deficient  rainfall  of  certain  seasons  by  supplying 
water  from  a  well  or  spring,  provided  the  area  to  be 
covered  is  not  large.  In  India  a  single  well  waters, 
on  an  average,  from  3  to  5  acres  of  arid  land. 
Small  springs  yielding  only  two  or  three  quarts  per 
second  may  be  cleared  out  and  should  irrigate 
several  acres.  It  is  usually  necessary,  however, 
to  provide  a  reservoir  when  the  flow  is  so  small. 
This  may  be  merely  large  enough  to  hold  the  flow 
of  twenty-four  hours.  A  spring  that  runs  two 
Quarts  per  second  would  discharge  43,200  gallons 
in  twenty-four  hours,  which  could  be  held  in  a 
reservoir  forty  feet  square  and  three  and  one-half 
feet  deep. 

Spring  and  well  water  is  sometimes  too  cold  to  be 
used  for  irrigation  until  it  has  been  first  warmed 
in  a  reservoir,  but  this  is  not  usually  necessary ;  and 
since  it  contains  far  less  plant  food  than  stream 
water,  and  is  usually  more  difficult  to  secure,  it 
should  not  be  used  for  irrigation  when  any  other 
can  be  had  conveniently.  Wells  can  be  had  in 
most  parts  of  the  arid  regions  at  a  depth  of  20 
to  100  feet.  The  water  is  usually  raised  by  a 
windmill.  Artesian  wells — those  in  which  the 
water  comes  up  and  overflows  the  surface  of  the 
ground — are  sometimes  available  for  irrigation, 
notably  in  South  Dakota. 

Use  of  Hydrant  Water  for  Irrigation. — The  use 


FARM  IRRIGATION  245 

of  hydrant  water  for  irrigation  is  confined  to  market 
and  home  gardens  near  cities  and  large  towns, 
especially  in  the  Atlantic  States.  It  can  usually 
be  bought  in  quantity  at  twenty  to  thirty  cents  per 
1,000  gallons,  at  which  price  it  may  sometimes  be 
practicable  to  use  it  for  forcing  a  high  development 
of  crops  on  high-priced  and  heavily  taxed  land. 
The  market  gardeners  around  Boston,  New  York 
and  other  Eastern  cities  quite  frequently  resort  to 
hydrant  irrigation;  but  this  method  is  entirely  out 
of  the  question  for  the  general  farmer  living  within 
city  limits. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SMALL  EARTH  RESERVOIRS 

The  construction  of  large  irrigation  canals  and 
reservoirs  is  a  problem  in  engineering,  not  in 
agriculture,  and  will  not  be  considered  here. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  small  irrigation  plants, 
especially  in  the  humid  states,  make  use  of  an  earth 
wall,  as  a  dam  to  a  small  stream  at  the  mouth  of  a 
valley,  or  across  a  gully  to  catch  and  hold  surface 
drainage,  or  as  the  sides  of  a  reservoir  built  upon 
level  land  and  filled  by  a  windmill,  hydraulic  ram 
or  steam  or  gasoline  pump.  Such  a  reservoir 
should  be  placed  high  enough  to  water  all  the  land, 
but  if  it  is  filled  by  power  it  should  be  as  low  as 
possible  so  as  to  save  the  lift.  Loosen  the  ground 
with  a  plow  where  the  walls  are  to  stand  and 
saturate  the  soil  with  water.  When  it  has  dried 
somewhat  let  the  teams  pass  over  it  often.  Repeat 
the  wetting  and  tramping  as  the  wall  arises.  Al- 
most any  loam  or  clay  soil  will  hold  water  if  it  is 
puddled  in  this  way.  If  the  soil  is  fairly  stiff  and 
the  reservoir  small  this  puddling  may  take  the  place 
of  the  clay  wall  that  is  necessary  for  large  reservoirs. 


246  SOILS 

The  bottom  of  the  reservoir  should  then  be  har- 
rowed, and,  if  necessary,  covered  with  clay  and 
puddled. 

The  banks  of  small  reservoirs  should  have  a  rise 
of  not  more  than  one  foot  in  two.  The  top  of  the 
bank  should  be  at  least  two  and  one-half  feet  wide. 
For  example,  if  a  bank  is  five  feet  high  it  should 
be  about  seventeen  feet  wide  at  the  base.  The 
rim  of  it  should  be  sodded  or  faced  with  stone  to 
prevent  erosion  by  waves.  A  circular  shape  is 
preferred  because  it  requires  the  least  number  of 
feet  of  wall  to  inclose  a  certain  area,  and  seepage 
is  less.  The  outlet  should  be  just  above  the 
bottom  and  may  be  masonry,  a  plank  sluiceway, 
sewer  pipe  or  wrought-iron  pipe,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  reservoir.  It  should  be  provided  with 
a  gate.  The  loss  of  water  by  seepage  from  these 
small  reservoirs  varies  with  the  character  of  the 
soil,  but  need  not  exceed  eight  inches  a  year  and 
is  usually  less.  The  loss  by  evaporation  is  usually 
much  greater,  especially  in  very  dry  or  windy 
climates.  It  can  be  lessened  only  by  planting 
windbreaks. 

PUMPING   WATER   FOR   IRRIGATION 

Most  of  the  irrigation  in  this  countrv  is  done  by 

i  •  •  •  * 

diverting  water  from  streams  or  reservoirs  by 
gravity.  In  most  cases  this  is  the  only  kind  of 
irrigation  that  is  at  all  practicable.  But  occasion- 
ally it  is  necessary  or  expedient  to  raise  water  from 
the  supply  to  the  main  ditch  or  to  the  field.  This 
is  done  chiefly  by  windmills,  engines,  hydraulic 
rams,  water-wheels.  Pumping  water  for  irrigation 
has  become  quite  common  in  California,  where 
wells  are  sunk  in  or  near  the  beds  of  underground 


FARM  IRRIGATION  247 

streams.  There  are  over  200,000  acres  in  Cal- 
ifornia irrigated  from  wells,  the  lift  in  many  cases 
being  over  200  feet. 

Windmills. — The  most  common  source  of  power 
for  moving  water  is  the  windmill.  When  small 
areas  are  to  be  irrigated,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 
raise  the  water  over  25  feet,  a  windmill  can  often 
be  used  to  advantage.  It  is  first  necessary  to  be 
assured  of  sufficient  wind  during  the  growing 
season.  Fortunately,  the  arid  and  semi-arid  prai- 
ries and  valleys  of  the  West  are  usually  windy. 
In  the  East,  especially  in  a  hilly  country,  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  secure  an  exposed  site  for  the 
windmill,  as  a  tower  70  to  90  feet  high,  above  hills, 
trees  and  other  obstructions.  The  windmill  should 
be  able  to  utilise  all  the  power  in  winds  of  from  8 
to  30  miles  an  hour,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
machinery.  For  the  best  service  it  should  have 
two  pumps,  one  of  smaller  capacity  than  the  other, 
and  should  be  so  adjusted  that  each  may  be  used 
alone,  or  both  together,  according  to  the  strength  of 
the  wind.  Small,  rapid  windmills,  having  wheels 
8  to  12  feet  in  diameter  are  usually  considered  most 
economical.  According  to  the  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  a  good  windmill  will  irrigate  from 
|  to  7  acres  of  land  at  a  cost  of  .75  to  $6  per  acre. 
But  there  are  many  crude,  home-made  windmills 
that  do  fairly  good  work,  costing  from  $5  to  $25, 
being  made  of  old  mowing  machines,  dry  goods 
boxes  and  bale  wire.  These  have  enabled  many  a 
poor  settler  to  get  a  start  the  first  few  years. 

The  water  may  be  drawn  from  a  well,  stream, 
pond  or  lake.  In  many  parts  of  the  arid  region 
water  may  be  struck  from  20  to  50  feet  deep  and 
an  unfailing  well  secured,  from  which  water  may 
be  raised  for  irrigation.  But  it  is  absolutely 


248  SOILS 

necessary  first  to  provide  a  reservoir;  little  can  be 
done  with  the  small  stream  pumped  direct  from 
the  well.  The  storage  reservoir  or  tank  may  be 
of  wood  or  other  material,  but  usually  the  most 
practicable  method  is  to  build  one  of  earth  as 
already  described.  Sometimes  two  or  more  mills 
are  placed  around  a  reservoir  of  this  kind. 

Steam  and  Gasoline  Engines. — This  power  is 
used  chiefly  by  market  garaeners  in  the  East  for 
irrigating  small  areas,  when  the  height  to  which 
the  water  must  be  raised  is  not  over  20  feet.  There 
are  many  makes  and  styles  of  engines  adapted  for 
this  purpose.  Gasoline  engines  are  commonly 
used  when  coal  and  wood  are  very  costly.  A 
2-horse-power  gasoline  engine  should  irrigate  an 
acre  at  a  cost  for  fuel  of  about  50  cents  a  day. 
The  cost  of  pumping  water  by  engines  usually 
exceeds  the  cost  of  maintaining  ditches  or  the  price 
of  water  bought  from  a  canal  company.  King 
found  that  a  2^-horse-power  gasoline  engine  could 
pump  sufficient  water  to  cover  an  acre  12  inches 
deep  for  $3.75  per  acre,  and  that  it  could  easily 
irrigate  10  acres  12  inches  deep  without  a  reservoir. 
The  same  authority  determined  that  an  8-horse- 
power  portable  engine,  with  soft  coal  at  $4  per  ton 
and  with  a  lift  of  26  feet,  could  draw  water  through 
110  feet  of  6-inch  suction  pipe  and  discharge  it 
through  varying  lengths  of  the  same  pipe  up  to 
1,200  feet  at  a  fuel  cost  of  18.1  cents  per  incn  of 
water  per  acre,  or  $2.17  per  acre  for  12  inches. 
The  expense  of  pumping  is  rarely  below  $3  an 
acre  per  season,  and  often  twice  or  thrice  that 
amount. 

Gasoline  pumps  range  in  capacity  from  5,000 
gallons  per  minute  from  a  depth  of  25  feet  down  to 
300  gallons  per  minute.  Centrifugal  pumps  run 


FARM  IRRIGATION  249 

by  steam  are  quite  commonly  used  up  to  40-horse 
power  and  sometimes  larger.  Most  of  the  smaller 
pumps  are  run  by  gasoline.  These  pumps  draw 
water  easily  from  a  depth  of  100  to  400  feet.  This 
method  is  practicable  chiefly  in  the  humid  and  sub- 
humid  regions  and  for  small  operations,  but  rarely 
in  an  aria  country  and  for  large  operations.  Gaso- 
line engines  are  often  used  to  supplement  wind 
power,  Deing  used  to  run  the  pump  on  still  days. 

Water-wheels. — One  of  the  oldest  and  still  one 
of  the  most  useful  means  of  carrying  water  to 
thirsty  land  is  by  utilising  the  force  of  flowing 
water.  When  a  stream  has  sufficient  fall  to  de- 
velop water  power  this  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and 
most  satisfactory  methods  of  irrigating  small 
areas.  There  are  thousands  of  water-wheels  on 
the  edge  of  swift-flowing  streams  in  the  arid  West, 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  in  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  undershot  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  best  of 
water-wheels.  This  is  a  paddle  wheel  carrying 
buckets  on  its  rim,  so  that  when  the  current  turns 
the  wheel  the  buckets  are  filled,  raised  to  the  top 
and  emptied  automatically  into  a  wooden  flume 
which  carries  the  water  into  the  irrigation  ditch. 
These  undershot  wheels  are  of  many  patterns,  and 
may  be  as  much  as  35  feet  in  diameter.  The  largest 
may  supply  nearly  120  acres  with  2  inches  of  water 
every  ten  days. 

On  the  other  hand,  the' water-wheel  may  be  used 
to  drive  a  centrifugal  pump  which  develops  power 
to  lift  other  water  out  upon  the  land.  This  method 
is  especially  useful  when  the  stream  has  a  high 
bank  along  which  canals  could  be  built  only  at 
great  expense.  The  Wyoming  Experiment  Station 
describes  a  wheel  10  feet  in  diameter  and  14  feet 
long,  which  is  connected  by  a  sprocket  wheel  and 


250  SOILS 

chain  to  a  3J-inch  centrifugal  pump,  which  lifts 
1,000  gallons  per  minute  to  a  height  of  ten  feet. 
It  irrigates  200  acres  at  the  rate  of  2£  inches  every 
10  days,  and  costs  $1,200. 

Hydraulic  Rams. — Large  hydraulic  rams  are 
often  serviceable  for  irrigating  small  areas.  They 
are  cheap  and  they  work  for  many  years  with 
practically  no  attention.  A  large  modified  ram 
known  as  a  siphon  elevator,  is  said  to  be  capable 
of  lifting  6  acre-inches  under  a  head  of  10  feet  to 
25  feet  high  in  24  hours,  or  enough  to  irrigate  24 
acres  2|  inches  deep  every  ten  days.  This  can  be 
used  only  when  there  is  a  reservoir,  and  costs  about 
$500. 

In  Europe  and  Asia  various  crude  devices  for 
using  horse,  mule  and  man  power  are  often  used 
to  lift  water  for  irrigation.  These  are  for  the  most 
part  entirely  unnecessary  and  impracticable  in  the 
United  States,  being  too  slow  and  laborious;  but 
from  these  humble  beginnings  many  prosperous 
irrigated  farms  have  been  developed  in  the  and  and 
semi-arid  regions  of  our  own  country. 

DISTRIBUTING   THE    WATER 

Water  is  diverted  from  the  main  canal  into  the 
farm  laterals,  and  from  these  into  smaller  supply 
ditches,  through  a  sluice-gate  made  of  boards  or 
planks.  These  are  of  many  styles,  but  the  essen- 
tial principle  in  most  of  them  is  a  rectangular 
flume  or  sluiceway  with  a  wooden  shutter,  mortised 
into  the  upper  end,  which  can  be  raised  and  lowered 
in  its  groove.  In  diverting  water  from  a  ditch  the 
covered  sluiceway  is  carried  through  the  bank 
nearly  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and 
the  gate  is  placed  at  the  ditch  end.  The  joints  of 


FARM  IRRIGATION  251 

the  grooves  should  be  tight  so  that  no  water  will 
trickle  through;  sometimes  they  are  faced  with 
rubber  or  leather.  Besides  many  styles  of  these 
home-made  gates  there  are  various  manufactured 
gates  which  are  more  complicated. 

Distributing  Ditches  and  Flumes. — Having 
brought  the  water  to  the  farm  by  ditch,  flume  or 
pipe,  it  must  now  be  distributed  to  different  fields. 
This  is  usually  done  by  taking  out  from  the  main- 
supply  ditch  smaller  distributing  ditches  or  laterals, 
which  should  have  a  slight  but  uniform  grade. 
Generally  it  is  best  to  run  these  main  laterals  direct 
to  the  different  fields,  from  the  point  where  the 
water  is  delivered,  and  to  take  from  them  small 
laterals  to  all  parts  of  the  fields.  The  main  lateral 
or  " head-ditch,"  is  located  on  the  border  of  the 
fields,  if  the  land  is  nearly  level;  or  on  the  ridges, 
without  regard  to  field  lines,  if  the  land  is  rolling. 
They  are  usually  permanent.  Laterals  for  flooding 
should  be  50  to  100  feet  apart.  Laterals  for  furrow 
irrigation  are  farther  apart,  usually  from  20  to  50 
rods  and  run  across  the  direction  of  the  furrows, 
so  that  water  can  be  turned  into  each  furrow  at  its 
head.  These  small  laterals  may  be  permanent  or 
temporary.  Distributing  laterals  should  be  run 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  greatest  slope  of  the 
land.  A  fall  of  at  least  five  feet  per  mile  is  com- 
monly recommended  and  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet 
per  mile  is  not  uncommon. 

Small  laterals  are  quickly  built  with  a  mould- 
board  plow  by  turning  up  two  parallel  furrow- 
slices  with  unbroken  ground  between  them.  The 
bottom  of  the  ditch  should  be  on  a  level  with  the 
surface  outside,  so  that  water  will  flow  out  of  it 
when  the  bank  is  cut.  In  other  words  the  banks 
must  be  made  of  soil  that  is  mostly  taken  from 


SOILS 

outside  the  ditch,  so  as  not  to  lower  its  bottom. 
Double  mouldboard  plows  and  special  "lateral 
plows'*  are  also  used.  When  it  is  necessary  for  a 
distributing  ditch  to  cross  over  a  small  depression 
it  must  be  Duilt  up  by  heaping  firmly  tramped  soil 
into  a  high  pile,  in  the  top  of  which  the  water 
course  is  cut. 

If  the  depression  is  deep  it  may  be  more 
expedient  to  carry  the  water  across  it  in  a 
wooden  flume,  built  of  two  planks,  like  a  V,  or 
square-bottomed.  In  arid  regions  ditches  are 
used  almost  exclusively  for  distributing  water  from 
the  main  supply,  being  cheaply  built  and  easy 
to  handle. 

The  loss  of  water  from  lateral  ditches  by  seepage 
is  great,  especially  on  open  soils ;  were  they  not  so 
cheap  they  would  be  impracticable.  Pipes  carry 
the  water  to  its  destination  with  no  seepage,  with 
no  evaporation  and  with  great  celerity.  Their 
expense  is  against  them  for  general  use  in  arid 
regions  but  in  the  Eastern  States  they  are  often 
used  to  advantage  in  small  operations,  especially 
in  market  gardening.  Board  flumes  are  perishable 
and  permit  of  evaporation,  but  they  are  cheap 
and  are  usually  the  most  practical  means  of  dis- 
tributing water  if  the  ditch  will  not  answer.  The 
best  flume  for  carrying  a  small  amount  of  water  is 
a  V-shaped  trough  made  of  two  boards  nailed 
together  and  bedded  in  the  soil,  with  short  cross 
pieces  under  the  end  joints.  If  pipes  are  used  they 
had  better  be  laid  on  the  surface  and  removed  in 
the  fall. 

The  use  of  cement-lined  ditches  for  distribu- 
ting water,  in  the  arid  regions  and  elsewhere, 
is  increasing.  If  the  soil  is  stiff  and  the  region  is 
not  subject  to  hard  frosts,  cement  or  asphaltum 


FARM  IRRIGATION  253 

may  be  laid  directly  upon  the  bottoms ;  but  usually 
it  is  safer  to  provide  some  foundation  for  the  cement, 
preferably  flat  stones.  The  advantages  of  a  cement- 
lined  ditch  over  an  ordinary  one  are  that  it  pre- 
vents seepage  and  washing  and  carries  the  water  to 
its  destination  quickly,  so  that  little  is  lost  by 
evaporation.  Such  ditch  linings  are  not  safe 
except  in  mild  climates  as  they  are  likely  to  be 
heaved  by  hard  frosts. 

Whatever  the  method  of  distributing  the  water 
it  should  be  carried  along  the  highest  part  of  the 
field  to  be  irrigated.  From  this  head  ditch  the 
water  is  applied  to  the  land  by  gravity. 

METHODS   OF   APPLYING   WATER 

The  methods  of  securing,  storing  and  distrib- 
uting water  are  largely  matters  of  engineering, 
although  they  have  a  direct  and  vital  relation  to 
successful  agriculture  on  many  American  farms. 
The  point  is  now  reached  when  the  water  must  be 
applied  to  the  soil;  here  agriculture  begins.  The 
problem  of  securing  sufficient  water  to  water  the 
farm  economically  is  often  very  difficult,  calling  for 
much  ingenuity  and  engineering  skill.  But  the 
problem  of  applying  this  water  to  the  land,  so  that 
both  soil  ana  crops  will  receive  the  most  benefit,  is 
much  more  complex.  The  engineer  can  help  the 
farmer  bring  water  to  the  farm  successfully  and 
economically,  but  the  problem  of  how  best  to  use 
this  water  on  the  land  each  farmer  must  solve  in  his 
own  way. 

The  use  of  water,  like  the  use  of  fertilisers  and 
manures,  is  not  capable  of  being  formulated  into 
definite  rules  applicable  for  all  farms,  or  even  for 
any  considerable  number  of  farms ;  chiefly  because 


254  SOILS 

the  soils  of  few  farms  are  exactly  alike,  or  have  been 
cropped  alike.  Irrigation  has  been  practised 
for  nundreds  of  centuries,  yet  there  is  no 
generally  accepted  body  of  information  on  the  best 
way  to  use  water.  This  must  be  left  largely  to  the 
judgment  of  the  farmer.  So  there  are  good  and 
there  are  poor  irrigators,  according  to  ability  to 
judge  correctly  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  needs 
of  the  crop.  One  man  is  able  to  make  an  inch  of 
water  go  twice  as  far  as  another.  Some  souse 
their  crops  and  puddle  their  land;  others  know 
how  to  let  the  soil  dry  out  and  sweeten  until  the 
critical  time  comes  when  the  crop  would  suffer  if 
water  were  not  added.  Like  tillage,  irrigation  is  a 
matter  of  judgment,  not  of  rule. 

The  principal  methods  of  applying  water  are  by 
flooding,  by  furrows,  and  by  sub-irrigation.  The 
method  of  applying  water  to  the  land  is  governed 
by  the  kind  of  crop  and  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  of 
the  subsoil.  If  the  soil  is  coarse-grained  water  will 
sink  down  rapidly  and  much  will  be  lost  by  seepage 
if  it  is  allowed  to  stay  upon  the  soil  long  in  the  same 
place,  as  in  furrow  irrigation.  Coarse-grained 
soils  should  be  flooded,  if  expedient. 


FLOODING 


The  simplest  way  to  use  water  is  to  spread  it 
over  the  surface,  as  a  river  overflows  its  banks. 
If  the  land  is  fairly  level  this  is  the  cheapest 
method  of  wetting  a  large  field  before  it  is  plowed 
for  planting  and  also  for  watering  land  used  con- 
tinuously for  grains,  grasses,  clovers  and  other 
crops  that  are  not  tilled.  But  an  almost  perfectly 
level  field  is  rare;  so,  in  the  contour  check  system 
of  flooding,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  throw  up  low 


FARM  IRRIGATION  255 

banks,  or  "levees."  These  are  built  at  right 
angles,  forming  square  or  rectangular  blocks  of 
land  of  from  £  to  20  acres,  depending  upon  the  con- 
tour, the  head  of  water,  the  crop,  and  the  neight  of  the 
banks.  On  land  that  has  a  marked  slope  a  com- 
mon size  is  50  to  150  feet  square,  but  sometimes 
checks  only  2  or  3  rods  square  are  necessary.  In 
the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  California,  30,000  acres  of 
alfalfa  in  one  block  are  irrigated  by  flooding. 
The  banks  are  12  to  20  inches  high,  12  to  18  feet 
wide  at  the  base  and  are  plowed,  harrowed  and 
harvested  like  the  enclosed  spaces. 

When  the  field  slopes  considerably  in  but  one 
direction,  the  checks  are  made  rectangular  in- 
stead of  square  with  the  long  sides  running 
across  the  slope.  This  makes  it  possible  to 
include  a  larger  area  within  the  check.  If  the 
slope  is  uneven  the  banks  running  across  it  will 
naturally  have  to  follow  the  contour.  They  are 
from  10  to  20  inches  high  and  4  to  15  feet  wide  at 
the  bottom,  so  that  mowers  and  harvesters  may  be 
driven  over  them  easily.  Thus  they  become 
permanent  features  of  the  farm.  The  ridges  may 
be  thrown  up  by  hand  with  shovels,  but  usually 
by  plowing  in  back-furrows  and  using  a  scraper  the 
work  can  be  done  more  economically.  Each 
check  should  include  as  large  an  area  as  possible  of 
approximately  the  same  level. 

Fillinq   the    Checks. — In   flooding   a  field   it   is 

Kf  ^J 

customary  first  to  turn  the  water  into  the  highest 
check  and  after  this  is  saturated  to  open  the  bank 
between  it  and  the  next  lower  check,  and  so  on,  all 
the  checks  being  flooded  in  succession  from  higher 
to  lower.  Or  the  water  may  be  taken  down  be- 
tween the  lines  of  checks  and  turned  in  on  each 
side,  flooding  the  checks  in  pairs.  Or  all  the  upper 


256  SOILS 

checks  may  be  irrigated  at  the  same  time,  and  the 
water  drawn  off  into  the  next  lower  checks  sim- 
ultaneously. Instead  of  cutting  the  bank  there  may 
be  ditches  with  head  gates  between  all  the  checks. 
Obviously  the  water  stands  deeper  on  the  lower 
side  of  a  check  than  on  the  upper;  the  more  the 
slope  the  greater  the  difference.  Thus  if  a  field 
slopes  8  inches  in  300  feet,  in  order  to  give  the  soil 
on  the  upper  part  of  a  check  300  feet  wide  2  inches 
of  water,  the  water  would  have  to  stand  10  inches 
high  at  the  lower  bank.  Build  the  banks  at  least 
3  inches  higher  than  the  water  will  stand  on  them. 

Wild  Flooding. — Another  system  of  flooding 
auite  commonly  practised  in  the  West,  is  to  cover 
trie  field  with  a  thin  stream  of  running  water;  this 
is  sometimes  called  "wild  flooding."  It  is  practi- 
cable only  when  the  slope  is  quite  moderate  and 
uniform.  Deep  furrows  are  plowed  down  the 
slope  50  to  125  feet  apart  or  following  an  easy 

frade.  A  V-plow  is  used  which  throws  the  eartn 
oth  ways,  making  a  ridge  on  either  side  that  throws 
the  water  outward.  Water  is  diverted  into  these 
furrows  from  the  head  ditch  and  each  furrow  is 
dammed  at  a  suitable  distance  merely  by  a  piece  of 
canvas  fastened  to  a  2  x  4,  which  is  laid  across  the 
furrow  and  the  edge  of  the  canvas  held  down  with 
soil.  The  water  backs  up  in  the  furrows  and  over- 
flows across  the  intervening  spaces.  When  the 
soil  is  sufficiently  wet  the  canvas  dams  are  moved 
farther  down  the  furrows.  A  wooden  or  metal 
"tappoon"  is  used  for  this  purpose  in  California 
and  Arizona,  being  thrust  down  into  the  soil  so  that 
it  obstructs  the  furrow.  The  furrows  may  be  tem- 
porary, when  tilled  crops  are  grown ;  or  permanent, 
when  sod  and  grain  crops  are  grown.  All  the 
water  will  not  soak  into  the  ground;  some  will 


FARM  IRRIGATION  257 

flow  into  the  depressions,  from  which  it  is  directed 
into  the  other  furrows.  The  furrows  are  not 
necessarily  parallel;  they  follow  the  contour, 
making  really  a  series  of  checks  not  bounded  by 
levees.  The  canvas  dam  is  often  dispensed  with. 

In  all  systems  of  irrigating  by  flooding  it  is  often 
necessary  and  practicable  to  level  off  small  in- 
equalities before  applying  the  water.  There  are 
many  styles  of  levels  and  scrapers,  both  home-made 
and  patented,  which  answer  the  purpose.  One 
built  of  two  braced  2-inch  planks,  forming  the 
letter  A,  does  very  well  if  weighted  and  shod  with 
steel  strips. 

FURROW   IRRIGATION 

When  the  land  has  too  steep  a  slope  to  be  flooded 
advantageously,  and  when  crops  are  grown  that 
do  not  cover  the  ground  and  must  be  tilled,  it  is 
usually  best  to  irrigate  by  furrows.  The  furrow 
System  is  also  used  very  commonly  on  land  that 
could  be  flooded,  and  for  sown  crops  as  well  as  for 
hoed  crops.  On  steep  land  the  furrows  may  be 
permanent,  either  for  a  number  of  years  or  for  one 
season,  but  they  hinder  cultivation.  Temporary 
furrows  are  best  in  most  cases.  If  the  soil  needs 
watering  before  planting,  however,  it  is  customary 
to  irrigate  by  flooding  until  the  soil  is  wet  at  least 
four  feet  deep.  The  crop  is  then  grown  as  long  as 
possible  without  irrigation  by  giving  it  thorough 
tillage,  for  four  feet  of  wet  soil  should  contain  six 
to  eight  inches  of  water. 

When  irrigation  becomes  necessary  take  water 
from  the  supply,  which  runs  along  the  highest 
point  of  the  fiela.  This  may  be  a  head  ditch,  or  a 
wooden  or  cement  flume,  with  holes  an  inch  or 


258  SOILS 

more  in  diameter  at  the  end  of  each  furrow,  plugged 
when  not  in  use.  A  wooden  flume  is  commonly 
made  of  soft  redwood  timber,  16  feet  long  and 
8  inches  wide,  with  collars  2x3  inches  every  8 
feet — one  in  the  middle  and  one  at  the  joint.  In 
garden  irrigation  on  a  small  scale  a  wooden  V- 
shape  flume  may  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  rows 
and  the  water  may  be  drawn  through  small  holes 
cut  into  the  sides  or  top  of  the  flume  and  furnished 
with  plugs. 

Plowing  Irrigation  Furrows. — The  furrow  may 
be  plowed  out  with  one  of  the  many  special  irri- 
gation plows,  but  a  shallow-furrowing  plow  will 
answer.  The  furrows  should  run  in  such  a  way 
that  they  follow  the  contour,  so  as  to  enable  the 
water  to  barely  trickle  down  to  the  ends  of  the 
furrows  without  washing.  If  the  slope  is  quite 
sharp  the  rows  of  plants  and  the  irrigation  furrows 
must  run  diagonally  across  the  slope  from  the  head 
ditch.  Water  is  turned  into  several  furrows  at 
once;  when  it  has  reached  the  ends  of  the  furrows 
it  is  shut  off  at  the  head  ditch  and  more  furrows  are 
filled. 

The  amount  of  water  that  the  soil  receives  de- 
pends very  largely  upon  the  grade  of  the  furrows. 
If  it  is  slight,  the  water  moves  sluggishly  and  more 
sinks  into  the  soil  before  it  reaches  the  end  of  the 
furrow  than  if  the  furrow  is  sharp.  Do  not  allow 
enough  water  to  enter  the  furrows  to  overflow 
them.  The  water  is  distributed  from  the  furrows 
sidewise  all  through  the  soil  by  capillary  action 
It  creeps  from  particle  to  particle  until  it  meets 
the  water  spreading  sidewise  from  the  adjoining 
furrow. 

Distance  Apart  and  Length  of  Furrows. — The 
best  distance  apart  for  irrigation  furrows  depends 


FARM  IRRIGATION  259 

upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  demands  of  the 
crop.  The  looser  a  soil  is  the  closer  they  should 
be.  Water  spreads  slowly  in  heavy  soils,  but  sandy 
soils  are  leachy.  They  may  be  between  every  two 
rows  of  potatoes,  corn,  sugar  beets,  or  other  row 
crops,  or  between  alternate  rows;  but  in  the  latter 
case  the  furrows  for  the  next  irrigation  should 
alternate  with  those  of  the  previous  watering.  As 
a  rule  the  furrows  should  be  from  4  to  6  feet  apart. 
Hilgard  shows  that  water  may  be  applied  in  wide 
furrows  much  more  efficiently  than  in  shallow 
furrows  because  there  is  less  evaporation  and  the 
surface  is  not  wet  as  much.  A  few  wide,  deep 
furrows  are  better  than  many  narrow,  shallow 
furrows.  The  distance  which  it  is  possible  to  send 
water  along  a  furrow,  and  thoroughly  wet  all  the 
soil,  depends  upon  the  grade  and  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  The  more  porous  a  soil  is  the  shorter  should 
be  the  furrows.  Water  is  commonly  sent  from  20 
to  75  rods  in  furrow  irrigation  and  sometimes  over 
100  rods. 

After  a  field  has  been  irrigated,  and  the  surface 
has  dried,  the  furrows  are  levelled  with  the  culti- 
vator. This  is  set  to  work  as  soon  as  possible, 
so  as  to  break  up  the  crust,  which  indicates  the 
rapid  loss  of  water  by  evaporation.  The  surface 
mulch  on  an  irrigated  soil  should  be  much  deeper 
than  on  soils  in  humid  regions;  four  inches  is  barely 
enough,  and  six  inches  is  often  necessary. 

A  modified  form  of  furrow  irrigation  is  some- 
times practised  on  grain  fields  by  rolling  the  field 
after  sowing  with  a  "marker,"  which  is  simply  a 
roller  having  parallel  ridges  upon  it  so  that  it  makes 
shallow  grooves  or  furrows  on  the  surface.  The 
roller  is  run  in  the  direction  that  will  give  the  right 
slope  for  applying  water.  Water  is  turned  into 


260  SOILS 

these  small  furrows  as  into  larger  furrows. 
Grain  fields  are  more  commonly  irrigated  by  wild 
flooding.  Furrow  irrigation  is  used  almost  ex- 
clusively for  fruits  and  farm  and  garden  crops  that 
require  inter-tillage.  In  many  places  it  has  sup- 
planted flooding  for  watering  grains  and  grasses. 
It  is  the  dominant  system  of  irrigation  in  America 
to-day. 

SUB-IRRIGATION 

The  great  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  under 
surface  irrigation,  and  the  inconvenience  of  having 
the  surface  broken  by  ditches  and  furrows,  has  led 
to  many  experiments  in  applying  water  below  the 
surface  through  tiles,  perforated  iron  pipes  or  per- 
forated cement  pipes.  Theoretically  sub-irrigation 
is  vastly  superior  to  surface  watering;  the  surface 
is  undisturbed,  the  soil  is  not  puddled  as  it  some- 
times is  in  surface  watering,  no  water  is  lost  and 
it  is  all  applied  just  where  it  is  needed  most — be- 
neath the  surface  mulch  of  dry  soil.  But  sub- 
irrigation  has  been  found  impracticable  in  most 
cases  where  it  has  been  tried.  The  one  great 
difficulty  with  it  is  the  cost,  which  is  usually  out  of 
all  proportion  to  the  benefits.  It  costs  from  $60 
to  $90  an  acre  to  equip  an  average  field  for  sub- 
irrigation  with  drain  tile  if  the  lines  of  tiles  are 
placed  from  four  to  seven  feet  apart,  as  is  usually 
necessary.  This  outlay  cannot  be  justified  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  on  high-priced  land,  and  especially 
land  used  for  market  gardening. 

Another  great  difficulty  with  sub-irrigation,  in 
some  cases,  is  in  being  unable  to  supply  suffi- 
cient water  to  wet  the  surface  soil  thoroughly, 
owing  to  the  poor  water-moving  power  of  some 


FARM  IRRIGATION  261 

soils.  Some  soils  are  so  porous  that  if  water 
is  applied  to  them  eight  or  ten  inches  below 
the  surface,  more  of  it  will  be  lost  to  the  crop  by 
downward  leaching  than  would  be  lost  by  evapo- 
ration if  it  were  applied  on  the  surface. 

Three-inch  dram  tiles  are,  on  the  whole,  most 
useful  for  sub-irrigating.  They  are  usually  laid 
from  5  to  24  inches  below  the  surface  and  from  4 
to  12  feet  apart,  according  to  the  openness  of  the 
soil.  Rarely  is  all  the  soil  wet  economically  when 
the  lines  of  tile  are  more  than  6  feet  apart.  Usually 
each  joint  is  closed  with  cement,  except  one  or  two 
inches  on  the  under  side.  They  are  laid  like  tile 
drains,  and  act  as  drains  if  the  soil  becomes  too  wet. 
The  fall  should  be  very  slight.  Besides  tile,  gal- 
vanised sheet-iron  pipes,  with  an  open  seam,  and 
perforated  iron  pipes  are  sometimes  used.  On 
many  soils  more  water  will  be  required  for  sub- 
irrigating  than  for  surface  watering,  even  though 
there  is  no  loss  by  evaporation,  owing  to  the  slow- 
ness with  which  it  moves  sidewise  through  the  soil 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  sinks  down  out  of 
reach  of  the  roots.  A  very  porous  subsoil  is  un- 
favourable for  sub-irrigation. 

But  there  is  no  use  in  discussing  the  pros  and 
cons  of  sub-watering  because  the  expense  of  the 
method  is  usually  prohibitive.  Sub-irrigation  is 
now  rarely  practised  except  in  greenhouses  and  in 
a  few  market  gardens.  Running  water  into  the 
upper  end  of  the  main  of  an  ordinary  tile  drainage 
system  has  been  tried  and  with  some  degree  of 
success  in  rare  instances.  It  is  necessary  in  these 
cases  that  the  water-table  should  be  nearly  on  a 
level  with  the  tiles. 

Under  sub-irrigation  mention  should  be  made  of 
the  lands  that  are  watered  naturally  beneath  the 


262  SOILS 

surface  by  underflow,  or  seepage  from  higher  land. 
Lands  below  large  irrigation  canals,  and  receiving 
its  seepage,  are  often  sub-watered  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  become  marshy  and  unfit  for  cultivation 
unless  drained;  in  other  cases  they  produce  ex- 
cellent crops  without  drainage  or  the  need  of  any 
surface  irrigation.  Of  the  same  nature  are  certain 
low  lands  that  receive  sub-watering  from  higher 
land,  either  near-by  or  many  miles  away.  The 
springs  and  underground  seepage  from  high  lands 
often  follow  certain  strata  of  rocks  and  subsoil  and 
sooner  or  later  come  to  the  surface,  watering  the 
land  at  that  point  uniformly  and  continuously 
from  below. 

METHODS   OF   MEASURING   WATER 

The  methods  of  measuring  or  apportioning 
water  are  diverse.  It  is  necessary  that  they  be 
accurate,  especially  when  the  water  is  purchased, 
or  when  several  farms  are  supplied  from  one  ditch. 
Usually,  however,  an  irrigator  receives  water  not 
by  measurement  but  by  proportion;  he  is  given  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  water  in  a  ditch,  as  one- 
fifth;  and  it  is  not  measured  by  inches,  but  by 
proportions  of  the  whole.  This  is  regulated  verv 
simply  by  placing  an  upright  partition  or  "  divisor r* 
in  the  flume  or  ditch,  one-fifth  of  the  way  across, 
so  that  one-fifth  of  the  water  flows  into  the  sluice- 
way and  the  remainder  passes  on.  But  the  ve- 
locity of  the  water  in  the  ditch  is  greater  near  the 
centre  than  on  the  edges,  so  that  those  that  use  the 
smallest  amount  of  water  always  get  less  than  they 
are  really  entitled  to.  To  correct  this  the  ditch 
is  often  broadened  above  the  measuring  box  so 
so  that  it  flows  through  very  slowly.  If  the 


FARM  IRRIGATION  263 

volume  of  water  is  to  be  halved  this  is  not 
necessary. 

Modules. — When  a  certain  amount  of  water  is 
to  be  taken  out  of  a  ditch  or  flume,  rather  than  a 
certain  proportion,  "modules"  are  used.  There 
are  many  forms  of  these,  from  the  simple  inch- 
square  hole  cut  in  a  plank  to  the  complex  weirs  and 
patented  measuring  boxes.  No  measuring  device 
now  known  is  entirely  satisfactory,  because  of  the 
rapid  fluctuation  in  the  height  and  velocity  of  water 
in  the  ditch.  King  concludes  "the  most  exact  and 
generally  satisfactory  way  of  apportioning  water 
among  users  that  has  yet  been  devised  is  that  of 
bisecting  the  stream  until  its  volume  has  become 
suitable  for  individual  use,  and  then  subdividing 
by  time  under  some  system  of  rotation." 

Units  in  Measuring  Water. — The  amount  of 
water  used  in  irrigation  is  commonly  stated  in  one 
of  two  ways ;  either  the  depth  of  standing  water  on 
the  surface,  or  the  amount  of  water  flowing  through 
an  opening  of  a  certain  size  during  the  irrigating 
season.  An  "acre  inch"  is  enough  water  to  cover 
one  acre  of  land  one  inch  deep,  which  is  27,150 
gallons.  It  is  gradually  becoming  the  standard  of 
measurement  in  this  country.  A  "miner's"  inch 
is  the  quantity  of  water  that  will  flow  through  an 
opening  one  inch  square  with  a  certain  head,  usual- 
ly six  inches,  from  the  upper  side  of  the  opening. 
This  is  about  twelve  gallons  per  minute.  But 
the  amount  of  head  varies  by  law  in  different  states. 
In  California  fifty  miners'  inches  are  equal  to  one 
second  foot,  but  in  Colorado  38.4  miners'  inches 
eaual  a  second  foot.  The  " second  foot"  is  the  unit 
when  one  cubic  foot  of  water  is  discharged  each 
second.  It  will  cover  an  acre  about  two  feet  deep 
in  24  hours,  or  23.8  acre  inches,  and  is  sufficient  to 


264  SOILS 

irrigate  from  70  to  100  acres  of  land  during  an 
irrigating  season  of  about  ninety  days. 

DUTY   OF   WATER 

This  is  the  amount  of  land  that  it  should 
irrigate.  No  definite  rules  can  be  made  on  this 
point,  owing  to  the  varying  capacity  of  different 
soils  to  hold  water  and  the  varying  demands  of 
different  crops.  For  example,  nearly  twice  as 
much  water  is  needed  in  Arizona  as  in  Montana, 
largely  because  the  season  is  longer  and  the  loss  by 
evaporation  much  heavier.  The  actual  amount 
of  water  used  by  the  crop  itself  is  small  compared 
with  the  amount  needed  to  saturate  the  soil  so  that 
conditions  favourable  for  plant  growth  are  pro- 
duced. Then  there  is  always  a  considerable 
amount  of  seepage  and  evaporation  which  cannot 
be  measured.  Much  also  depends  upon  the 
capillary  power  of  the  soil,  or  its  ability  to  draw 
water  upward,  and  especially  upon  the  water- 
holding  and  water-moving  power  of  the  subsoil. 

In  regard  to  the  actual  amount  of  water  needed 
by  plants,  Professor  King  has  determined  that  it 
takes  from  300  to  500  pounds  of  water  to  make 
one  pound  of  dry  matter  in  the  crop.  Since  an 
inch  of  water  covering  an  acre  weighs  about  113 
tons  it  would  require  3  to  5  inches  of  water  to 
make  one  ton  of  nay,  corn  fodder  or  other  dried 
crop.  This  is  about  the  minimum  figure  and  does 
not  allow  for  serious  loss  by  seepage  and  evapora- 
tion. In  southern  California  excellent  results  have 
been  secured  with  6  or  7  inches  per  year  in  years 
when  water  was  low,  but  only  when  the  water  was 
used  with  great  economy,  and  the  irrigation  was 
supplemented  with  excellent  tillage.  Ordinarily 


FARM  IRRIGATION  265 

nearly  twice  this  amount  is  necessary,  the  average 
for  southern  California  being  about  12  inches, 
in  addition  to  a  rainfall  of  10  to  20  inches. 

The  Character  o]  the  Soil. — When  water  is  first 
turned  upon  virgin  land  it  takes  a  large  amount  to 
thoroughly  wet  the  soil,  especially  to  saturate  the 
subsoil.  Newell  states  that  on  some  arid  soils  10 
feet  of  water  is  often  needed  the  first  year  and 
5  feet  or  more  per  year  for  two  or  three  years  there- 
after. As  the  subsoil  becomes  saturated  and  the 
water-table  raised,  less  and  less  water  is  needed, 
until  8  to  18  inches  per  year  or  less  may  be 
sufficient. 

The  amount  of  water  needed  for  a  single  irri- 
gation varies  from  2  to  4|  inches,  according  to  the 
openness  of  the  soil  and  the  crop.  If  the  soil  is  very 
dry,  however,  as  on  virgin  land,  two  or  three 
times  this  amount  may  be  needed  to  thoroughly 
saturate  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  4  or  5  feet.  If  the  soil 
is  clayey  and  cracks  badly,  smaller  and  more  fre- 
quent irrigations  are  better,  since  less  water  is  lost 
by  leaching  through  the  cracks. 

The  Kind  of  Crop. — The  deeper  the  roots  of  the 
crop  feed  the  more  liberal  may  be  the  irrigation. 
What  is  desired  is  to  store  as  much  water  as  possible 
in  that  part  of  the  soil  which  is  laid  under  tribute 
by  the  plants.  The  deeper  a  crop  feeds  the  higher 
is  the  *  duty"  of  water,  or  the  area  that  it  ought  to 
irrigate,  because  less  of  it  is  lost  by  leaching,  as  it 
is  when  applied  to  shallow-rooted  crops.  In  arid 
regions  plants  commonly  root  deeper  than  in  humid 
regions,  because  the  subsoil  is  likely  to  be  almost 
as  congenial  for  root  growth  as  the  surface  soil. 
Tree  fruits  of  all  kinds  are  deep  rooted,  also 
alfalfa;  the  irrigations  of  these  plants  are  usually 
more  liberal,  but  less  frequent,  man  the  irrigations 

STATE  NORB1AL  SCHOOL, 

tlOS  AJMOBUES,  CHIt. 


266  SOILS 

of  other  field  crops  which  do  not  grasp  so  much 
soil  with  their  roots. 

The  volume  of  water  needed  to  irrigate  an  acre 
in  one  year  may  be  roughly  stated  as  from  30,000 
to  60,000  gallons,  which  is  equivalent  to  one  miner's 
inch  for  5  to  10  acres  or  one  second  foot  for  250  to 
500  acres.  It  is  commonly  considered  that  about 
the  maximum  duty  of  a  miner's  inch  of  water  is 
4  to  6  acres  of  vegetables  and  small  fruits  and  5  to  10 
acres  of  orchard  fruits.  This  means  that  the 
ground  will  be  covered  from  8  to  16  inches  deep  in  a 
growing  season  from  May  to  October.  The 
average  for  most  arid  regions  is  about  12  inches 
per  year.  In  parts  of  southern  California  30  inches 
are  sometimes  used.  The  volume  of  water  used 
in  sewage  irrigation  is  always  much  more  than 
this. 

The  amount  of  water  needed  is  always  dependent 
upon  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  is  an  addition  to 
it.  The  more  rainfall  the  less  irrigation,  for  irri- 

fation  should  supplement  the  natural  supply, 
ince  the  rainfall  in  a  section  under  irrigation  may 
range  from  almost  nothing  to  20  or  more  inches,  and 
varies  from  year  to  year,  the  difficulty  of  establish- 
ing any  definite  standard  is  increased.  The  season 
of  the  year  when  this  rainfall  comes  has  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  quantity  of  water  needed  in 
irrigation.  If  it  comes  in  summer  it  is  less  valuable, 
as  a  rule,  than  winter  rainfall. 

Levelling  the  Land. — Arid  lands  that  are 
irrigated  are  usually  nearly  level  and  are 
covered  with  sagebrush.  They  often  have 
slight  irregularities  due  to  the  drifting  of  the 
light  soil.  Virgin  land  must  be  prepared  for 
irrigation  by  removing  the  sagebrush  and  level- 
ling the  surface.  The  brush  is  usually  grubbed 


FARM  IRRIGATION  267 

out  by  hand  with  a  mattock,  at  a  cost  of 
$1.50  to  $2.50  per  acre.  Sometimes  it  may  be 
plowed  out  in  spring.  If  a  railroad  rail  is  dragged 
over  the  field  several  times,  in  different  directions, 
the  brush  can  be  removed  more  easily.  Sometimes 
the  land  is  flooded  for  a  year  to  kill  the  sage- 
brush. 

It  is  essential  that  irrigated  land  be  very  smooth 
so  that  water  will  flow  readily  and  evenly.  The 
land  is  usually  first  plowed  then  smoothed  with 
various  home-made  implements.  One  of  the  most 
common  is  the  "buck  scraper"  made  of  two  2-inch 
planks,  10  inches  wide,  fastened  together  and  pro- 
vided with  a  steel  shoe  on  the  lower  edge,  and  with 
handles  for  dumping.  There  are  several  patented 
scrapers.  The  cost  of  levelling  is  from  $1  to  $15 
per  acre. 

FREQUENCY   AND   TIME   OF    IRRIGATION 

Water  should  be  applied  no  more  frequently 
than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
crop.  One  great  danger  in  irrigation,  especially 
on  fine-grained  soils,  is  that  of  puddling  the  surface 
by  frequent  copious  wettings.  Then,  too,  the 
more  often  water  is  applied  the  greater  is  the  loss 
by  evaporation  and  seepage  and  the  greater  the 
labour.  Dig  down  3  or  4  feet  in  several  places  and 
examine  the  soil.  The  condition  of  the  soil  and  of 
the  crops  are  reliable  guides;  irrigate  before  the 
subsoil  gets  very  dry  and  before  the  crop  begins  to 
suffer.  Plants  indicate  the  need  of  water  by  curling 
their  leaves,  or  the  leaves  may  turn  a  darker  green 
than  usual,  or  the  lower  leaves  may  turn  yellow. 

There  is  no  uniform  practice  as  regards  the 
number  of  irrigations.  It  is  usually  necessary 


268  SOILS 

to  irrigate  corn,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats  from 
three  to  five  times,  oats  requiring  the  most 
water  and  barley  least.  In  Colorado  wheat 
is  irrigated  but  twice;  but  sufficient  rain 
usually  falls  in  spring  and  early  summer  to 
make  the  number  of  irrigations  five  or  six  if  all  the 
water  had  to  be  applied  from  the  ditch.  Clover 
and  alfalfa  are  usually  watered  before  growth 
starts  in  the  spring  and  once  after  each  crop  is  cut, 
applying  4  to  6  inches  each  time.  Grass  is  com- 
monly irrigated  as  often  and  as  copiously  as  is 
expedient  without  swamping  the  meadows — usual- 
ly every  ten  to  eighteen  days.  Potatoes  are  not 
irrigated  until  blossoming,  then  two  to  four  times 
thereafter.  Fruit  trees  are  irrigated  less  frequent- 
ly but  more  deeply  than  field  crops ;  usually  two  to 
six  times  a  season,  except  citrus  fruits,  which 
require  more  water. 

When  water  is  plentiful  the  tendency  is  to  over- 
irrigate.  This  is  dangerous;  too  much  water  is 
as  bad  as  drought.  It  keeps  the  soil  cold,  air  does 
not  circulate  in  it  and  the  beneficial  germs  of 
fertility  cannot  thrive.  The  plants  look  yellowish. 
If  growing  fruits,  as  peaches,  they  are  forced  to  an 
abnormal  size  and  are  watery,  of  poor  flavour  and 
carry  to  market  poorly.  A  good  irrigator  uses  as 
little  water  as  possible.  If  growing  tilled  crops  the 
aim  should  be  to  make  tillage  take  the  place  of 
irrigation  as  much  as  possible,  for  water  saved  is  as 
good  as  water  added,  if  not  better. 

Winter  irrigation  is  becoming  quite  common, 
especially  in  parts  of  California  and  Arizona. 
Wnen  the  water  courses  are  dry  in  summer,  but  full 
in  spring  after  heavy  rains,  it  is  often  practicable 
to  divert  it  to  the  land  and  allow  it  to  soak  deeply 
into  the  subsoil,  where  it  is  stored  against  the 


FARM  IRRIGATION  269 

drought  of  summer.  If  the  subsoil  is  filled  with 
water  in  winter,  little  summer  irrigation  may  be 
needed.  Winter  irrigation  is  especially  useful  as 
an  adjunct  to  dry  farming. 

The  Time  of  Day  to  Irrigate. — The  best  time  to 
irrigate  is  late  in  the  afternoon,  or  on  a  cloudy  day, 
because  less  water  is  lost  by  evaporation;  but  the 
more  important  consideration  of  convenience  usual- 
ly dictates  the  time,  regardless  of  the  hour.  If 
lieat-loving  plants,  as  corn,  are  irrigated  on  a  hot, 
sunny  day,  the  rapid  evaporation  may  cool  the  soil 
sufficiently  to  check  growth  somewhat.  Crops 
that  shade  the  ground,  as  fruits  and  grasses,  are  not 
subject  to  injury  in  this  way.  When  water  is 
scarce,  and  can  be  had  only  during  certain  hours, 
night  irrigation  is  often  necessary.  This  is  an 
economy  of  water,  for  less  of  it  is  lost  by  evaporation 
and  the  water  delivered  at  night  usually  costs  less 
than  the  same  amount  delivered  in  the  day,  but  it 
is  difficult  to  apply  it  as  skilfully. 

Directing  the  Flow. — The  flow  of  the  water  is 
directed  by  a  man  with  a  long-handled  shovel, 
with  which  he  keeps  certain  furrows  open  or 
closes  them,  as  needed.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
course  of  the  water  receive  constant  attention,  for 
it  is  likely  to  collect  in  the  hollows  or  break  the 
channel.  A  common  mistake  in  irrigating  is  to 
hurry  the  water,  thus  increasing  the  washing  of  the 
soil.  Let  it  run  so  gently  that  the  sides  and  bottom 
of  the  furrows  are  not  washed  and  the  stream  runs 
clear.  Too  rapid  application  of  water  "slickens" 
or  puddles  the  soil ;  let  it  soak  in  slowly.  If  the  water 
runs  too  slowly,  direct  more  of  it  into  each  furrow ; 
if  it  runs  too  fast,  reduce  the  amount  that  is  allowed 
to  enter  the  furrow.  It  requires  much  practice  to 
become  really  expert  in  handling  water. 


270  SOILS 

TILLAGE   AFTER   IRRIGATION 

When  the  crop  will  permit  the  land  should 
be  tilled  after  each  irrigation.  This  is  especially 
necessary  in  the  case  of  orchard  fruits,  small  fruits, 
corn,  potatoes  and  garden  vegetables.  Irrigation 
leaves  the  surface  soil  more  or  less  puddled;  when 
this  dries  it  becomes  hard  and,  if  clay,  it  may  crack. 
These  conditions  are  very  favourable  for  a  rapid 
loss  of  water  which,  if  unchecked,  may  easily 
amount  in  a  few  days  to  a  large  per  cent,  of  the 
water  that  has  been  applied. 

Amateurs  in  arid  farming  often  have  a  notion 
that  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  irrigate  often  enough 
to  keep  the  soil  moist,  and  that  tillage  is  therefore 
unnecessary.  The  fact  is  that  tillage  is  about  as 
important  in  arid  farming  as  in  humid  farming. 
In  the  first  place  excessive  irrigation  makes  many 
crops  sappy,  over-vigorous  and  unsubstantial. 
This  is  especially  true  of  fruits.  In  the  second 
place  it  is  good  economy  to  use  as  little  water  as  is 
necessary  to  secure  the  best  results,  for  water  is 
expensive  to  secure  and  laborious  to  apply.  In 
the  third  place  a  soil  that  is  kept  as  continuously  wet 
as  would  be  necessary  in  order  to  grow  crops  with- 
out tillage  between  irrigations,  is  not  in  the  best 
condition  for  maintaining  its  fertility.  A  certain 
amount  of  dryness  in  the  surface  soil  promotes  the 
development  of  soil  bacteria  and  other  agencies 
that  have  an  important  influence  on  the  pro- 
ductivity of  the  land.  As  men  become  more  ex- 
perienced in  the  use  of  water  they  almost  invariably 
decrease  the  amount  applied  and  increase  the  fre- 
quency and  thoroughness  of  the  supplementary 
tillage.  One  does  not  need  to  grow  crops  many 
years  in  order  to  learn  that  there  is  nothing  that  can 
take  the  place  of  stirring  the  soil. 


FARM  IRRIGATION  271 

METHOD    OF    IRRIGATING   IMPORTANT   CROPS 

Methods  of  irrigating  different  crops  by  flooding 
and  by  furrows  are  endlessly  varied  in  different 
sections  to  suit  the  needs  of  different  crops.  The 
following  are  common  methods  of  handling  a  few 
of  the  most  important  irrigated  crops. 

Meadows,  Including  Alfalfa. — These  are  irrigated 
largely  by  flooding,  usually  once  in  early  spring 
before  growth  starts,  and  once  after  harvesting 
each  crop.  If  irrigation  is  given  more  frequently 
than  this,  it  should  be  some  time  before  the  time 
to  cut  the  grass,  so  that  the  ground  may  be  firm 
then.  Irrigated  meadows  should  usually  be  cut 
rather  than  pastured.  Unless  the  ground  has  been 
allowed  to  become  quite  dry,  animals  are  likely  to 
roughen  the  surface  and  increase  the  difficulty  of 
flowing  water  over  it  evenly.  The  amount  of  water 
used  in  irrigating  meadows  cannot  easily  be  ex- 
cessive. Under  sewage  irrigation,  on  the  water- 
meadows  of  Italy,  from  40  to  70  tons  per  acre 
are  cut  each  season.  These  meadows  are  irri- 
gated by  a  thin  sheet  of  water  running  over 
them  almost  continuously,  night  and  day,  during 
seven  months  of  the  year,  amounting  to  over 
three  hundred  feet  of  water  per  year.  Water  is 
turned  off  only  long  enough  to  cut  the  six  or  seven 
crops  of  grass,  which  grows  the  year  around. 

Tree  Fruits. — Most  orchard  irrigation  is  by 
furrows.  The  prevailing  method  is  to  lead  the 
water  through  very  narrow  furrows  four  or  five 
feet  apart,  allowing  it  to  soak  four  or  five  feet 
deep  and  to  spread  between  the  furrows  beneath 
the  surface  mulch  before  the  supply  is  cut  off.  It 
is  sometimes  recommended  that  the  furrows  be 
run  on  the  shady  side  of  the  trees  so  that 


272  SOILS 

the  sunlight  reflected  from  the  water  will  not 
burn  the  bark  and  leaves.  The  water  should 
not  actually  touch  the  trunks  of  the  trees;  citrous 
trees  are  especially  liable  to  be  injured  in  this 
way,  contracting  the  "gum  disease."  Water  that 
seeps  through  at  the  lower  end  of  the  or- 
chard, and  which  might  run  to  waste,  may  be 
collected  in  a  foot  ditch  and  used  on  the  lower  land. 
All  the  ground  on  which  young  trees  are  planted 
does  not  need  to  be  irrigated.  A  distributing  fur- 
row may  be  plowed  four  to  six  feet  away  from  the 
row  of  young  trees,  with  branch  furrows  circling 
each  tree.  Water  should  stand  in  these  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours.  The  circle  furrow  is  made 
farther  away  as  the  tree  gets  older  and  eventually 
merges  into  two  straight  furrows  on  each  side. 
The  number  of  the  furrows  is  increased  gradually 
as  the  orchard  conies  into  bearing  until  the  whole 
area  is  laid  off  with  narrow  furrows  four  to  five  feet 
apart. 

Occasionally  fruit  trees  are  irrigated  by  a  system 
of  small  pools  or  checks,  a  low  retaining  ridge  being 
thrown  up  around  each  tree  with  a  "ridger,"  and  a 
certain  amount  of  water  allowed  to  stand  within 
until  the  soil  has  absorbed  it.  The  chief  objection 
to  this  method  seems  to  be  that  it  tends  to  make  the 
roots  develop  near  the  surface  and  close  to  the  tree, 
and  not  to  forage  widely,  though  it  is  somewhat 
more  saving  of  water.  More  rarely  fruit  trees  are 
irrigated  by  flooding  the  whole  ground. 

The  vital  point  in  irrigating  tree  fruits  is  to  wet 
the  soil  deeply  and  to  make  tillage  go  just  as  far  as 
it  will  in  reducing  the  amount  of  irrigation.  In 
parts  of  California  and  Arizona  it  has  been  found 
wise,  on  some  deep  soils,  to  irrigate  deciduous  fruits 
— never  citrus  fruits — in  winter,  as  this  may 


FARM  IRRIGATION  273 

make  them  less  liable  to  winter  injury  and  lessen 
the  need  of  irrigation  in  summer.  Late  fall  irri- 
gation is  sometimes  practised  to  prevent  fall 
blossoming  and  the  drying  of  the  tissues  of  the  trees 
in  winter,  especially  when  the  rainfall  is  very  scant. 
Evergreen  fruit  trees  require  about  50  per  cent, 
more  water  than  deciduous  fruits  on  the  same 
soil.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  the  olive, 
which  needs  about  as  much  water  as  deciduous 
fruits. 

Small  Fruits. — Raspberries,  blackberries,  grapes 
and  other  small  fruits  are  commonly  irrigated  by  run- 
ning a  furrow  each  side  of  a  row.  Strawberries  are  so 
shallow-rooted  that  they  must  be  irrigated  very 
frequently;  hence  it  is  a  common  practice  to  lead 
the  water  through  broad  furrows  in  alternate  rows, 
so  that  the  fruit  may  be  picked  between  every 
other  row.  Depressed  bed  irrigation  is  also  used 
for  small  fruits.  This  is  really  a  form  of  check 
irrigation,  only  the  levees  are  widened  so  that 
water  may  be  carried  in  shallow  ditches  along 
their  tops. 

Potatoes. — The  land  should  be  deeply  irrigated 
before  planting  and  no  more  water  used  than  is 
absolutely  necessary  until  after  the  plants  have 
blossomed.  If  possible,  carry  the  crop  to  this 
point  without  irrigation.  After  the  vines  cover  the 
ground  and  tubers  have  begun  to  form  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly important  that  the  ground  should  be 
kept  moist  all  the  time  so  that  me  plants  suffer  no 
check.  It  is  best  to  lead  water  between  every  two 
rows,  unless  water  is  scarce,  when  it  may  be  led 
down  every  other  space,  alternating  with  successive 
irrigations.  The  hills  should  be  ridged  with  a 
double-winged  cultivator  so  that  they  will  not  be 
flooded. 


274  SOILS 

Garden  Vegetables. — These  are  irrigated  by  flood- 
ing, furrows,  and  various  modifications  of  both 
systems.  A  common  method  is  to  make  furrows 
between  rows  four  to  six  feet  apart  or  in 
alternate  spaces,  the  water  not  being  allowed  to 
flow  outside  these  furrows.  Another  method  is  to 
lay  off  the  garden  into  small  basins  surrounded  by 
ridges  four  to  five  inches  high  and  six  to  eight  inches 
wide.  In  some  cases  furrows  six  inches  deep  and 
about  eighteen  inches  apart  are  made  and  the 
plants  grow  on  the  high  broad  ridges  between  them. 
Or  each  row  of  plants  may  be  set  in  a  narrow  basin, 
with  a  ridge  between  rows,  the  basin  being  short  so 
that  it  can  be  flooded  quickly.  Vine  vegetables,  as 
cucumbers  and  melons,  are  commonly  grown  be- 
tween irrigation  furrows  six  feet  apart,  the  seeds 
being  planted  near  the  edge  of  the  furrows  and 
the  vines  being  spread  on  the  broad  ridge  between 
two  furrows.  Depressed  and  raised  bed.  irrigation 
are  also  used  extensively  for  vegetables.  It  is 
especially  important  that  garden  irrigation  be 
followed  by  cultivation  as  soon  as  the  ground  can 
be  workecf. 

COST   OF   IRRIGATION 

This  depends  upon  so  many  factors  that  nothing 
at  all  definite  can  DC  stated,  as  is  illustrated  in  the 
following  general  quotations: 

The  yearly  cost  of  water  in  southern  California 
is  from  $3  to  $6  per  acre.  In  Orange  County, 
California,  water  sells  for  about  $4.75  per  acre  foot. 
In  Riverside  County  it  cost  as  high  as  $15  per  acre 
in  the  dry  year  of  1900.  In  Los  Angeles  County 
it  was  sold  from  1898  to  1900  for  $18  to  $30  per 
acre  foot.  Hydrant  water  bought  from  a  city  or 


82.     IRRIGATING  A  GARDEN  FROM  A  HYDRANT  IN  A  SEMI- 
ARID  REGION    (PULLMAN,  WASH.) 
A  small  notch  is  cut  in  the  wooden  flume  at  the  end  of  each  row  of  celery 


83.     IRRIGATING  STRAWBERRIES  BY  PUMPING  FROM  CACHE 

CREEK,  CALIFORNIA 
Strawberries  require  a  very  large  amount  of  water 


FARM  IRRIGATION  275 

private  water  company  is  likely  to  cost  20  cents  per 
1,000  gallons,  which  is  $32.40  per  acre  for  three 
irrigations  of  2  inches  each.  The  average  cost  of 
water  for  irrigating  citrus  fruits  in  California  is 
about  $10  per  acre. 

The  cost  of  a  water  right,  which  is  bought  with 
the  land,  varies  as  much  as  the  annual  cost  of  the 
water.  Under  the  Fresno  Canal  in  California  it  is 
about  $40  per  acre.  Census  reports  show  that  the 
average  first  cost  of  constructing  reservoirs,  canals, 
etc.,  and  bringing  water  to  the  land  is  about  $8.15 
per  acre;  while  me  average  cost  of  maintenance  is 
about  $1.10  per  acre.  Irrigation  in  the  humid 
states  usually  costs  more,  largely  because  Eastern 
farmers  have  not  the  skill  and  the  economy  in 
handling  water  that  comes  natural  to  one  born  in 
an  arid  region.  The  average  cost  of  irrigation  in 
Connecticut  in  1899  was  $34.21  per  acre,  which  is 
about  four  times  the  average  cost  of  irrigation  in 
arid  regions. 

NATIONAL  AID    IN    IRRIGATION 

Few  Eastern  farmers  realise  the  area  of  land  in 
the  West  that  is  still  owned  by  the  United  States 
Government.  It  amounts  to  over  six  hundred 
millions  of  acres  and  is  located  chiefly  in  Arizona, 
California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Montana,  Nebraska, 
Nevada,  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Utah, 
Washington  and  Wyoming.  A  large  part  of  this 
vast  area  possesses  great  inherent  fertility,  which 
is  rendered  valueless  by  the  lack  of  water.  As 
President  Roosevelt  states  it,  "In  the  arid  regions 
it  is  water,  not  land,  which  measures  production." 

Much  of  this  area  is  traversed  by  streams  that 
can  be  used  to  reclaim  it.  But  most  of  the  land 


276  SOILS 

< 

which  can  be  irrigated  by  small  canals,  such  as  can 
be  built  with  the  combined  means  of  a  number  of 
farmers,  or  a  stock  company,  has  already  been 
brought  under  ditch.  These  are  mostly  the  river 
bottoms  and  low  bench  lands.  These  constitute, 
however,  but  a  small  per  cent,  of  the  great  area  of 
land  that  it  is  possible  to  make  productive  by 
irrigation.  There  are  large  enterprises  that  are 
beyond  the  reach  of  private  capital.  There  are 
millions  of  acres  that  may  be  made  as  fertile  as  any 
land  on  the  continent,  and  at  a  comparatively 
slight  cost  p>er  acre,  if  sufficient  capital  could  be 
found  to  build  the  immense  reservoirs  and  canals 
that  this  reclamation  entails.  It  cannot  be  done 
by  the  different  states,  for  interstate  disputes  con- 
cerning water  rights  would  arise.  It  is  a  National, 
not  a  state  or  private  problem.  So  it  has  come 
about  that  there  has  been  a  strong  appeal  from  the 
West  for  government  aid.  This  appeal  has  been 
heeded. 

The  Reclamation  Act  o)  1902. — Under  this  Act 
the  Government  purposes  to  irrigate,  and  so  make 
productive,  a  vast  area  of  land  now  of  little 
or  no  value.  Some  authorities  estimate  the  total 
area  which  may  be  benefited  by  this  Act  as 
close  to  fifty  millions  of  acres,  which  are  loca- 
ted in  parts  of  all  the  states  and  territories  in 
the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions.  This  Act  provides 
that  all  money  from  the  sale  of  public  lands  in 
the  arid  West  shall  constitute  a  special  fund  to  be 
used  in  the  survey  and  construction  of  reservoirs 
and  canals  for  the  reclamation  of  arid  and  semi-arid 
lands. 

The  U.  S.  Government  has  already  expended 
about  ten  millions  of  dollars,  of  thirty-four  millions 
appropriated,  in  making  surveys,  constructing  res- 


FARM  IRRIGATION  277 

ervoirs  and  digging  canals.  The  reservoirs  are  built 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  storing  flood  water  that 
it  may  be  turned  into  the  streams  at  low  water. 
Additional  money  for  this  work  will  be  derived 
from  the  sale  to  settlers  of  government  lands  in 
these  states  and  territories  after  it  has  been  brought 
under  ditch.  This  land  is  to  be  divided  into  farms 
of  not  less  than  40  or  more  than  160  acres,  which  is 
enough  to  support  a  family  of  five.  Only  actual 
settlers  can  taxe  advantage  of  the  privileges  of  this 
Act;  there  is  no  room  for  speculators.  Those  who 
settle  upon  these  homesteads  are  required  to  repay 
the  government,  in  ten  annual  instalments  or  less, 
the  extent  of  their  indebtedness,  which  is  the  pro- 
portionate cost  of  supplying  their  land  with  water. 
The  cost  of  construction  is  repaid  by  the  sale  of  the 
land  reclaimed.  The  money  will  then  be  used  by 
the  government  for  developing  similar  enterprises 
in  other  sections. 

There  are  already  under  construction,  or  def- 
initely in  view,  fourteen  irrigation  projects  which, 
when  completed,  will  water  about  a  million  and  a 
half  acres  of  land.  These  projects  are  not  in  a 
few  states,  but  in  all  of  them;  there  is  a  com- 
prehensive scheme  for  irrigating  the  entire  area 
of  arid  land  that  it  is  practicable  to  irrigate.  Small 
systems,  called  "units,"  are  to  be  established  here 
and  there  as  may  be  most  expedient,  with  a  view  to 
future  additions  and  development,  until  a  vast 
area  is  watered  by  one  great  system  of  reservoirs, 
rivers  and  canals. 

It  was  a  notable  event  in  the  history  of  American 
agriculture  when  the  first  irrigation  system  to  be 
opened  under  the  Reclamation  Act — the  Truckee- 
Carson  Project,  in  western  Nevada — was  formally 
opened  on  June  17, 1905,  in  the  presence  of  a  large 


278  SOILS 

and  enthusiastic  assemblage.  When  this  single 
unit  is  completed  it  will  cost  about  ninety  millions 
of  dollars  and  will  water  about  three  hundred  and 
seventy-five  thousand  acres  in  excess  of  the  area 
now  supplied. 

In  addition  to  providing  irrigation  systems,  the 
National  Government  is  endeavouring  to  aid 
arid  farming  by  protecting  the  forests  of  the  West. 
Most  of  the  streams  from  which  the  water  is  drawn 
have  their  origin  in  forested  mountains.  Cutting 
off  the  forests  or  allowing  them  to  be  burnt  off 
would  make  the  water  supply  more  uncertain. 
Contrary  to  the  popular  notion,  forests  have  but 
little  effect  in  increasing  rainfall,  but  they  have  a 
very  marked  effect  in  regulating  the  flow  of  streams. 
Over  forty-seven  million  acres  of  forests  have  been 
set  aside  for  the  protection  of  the  headwaters  of 
irrigation  streams.  President  Roosevelt  said  in 
his  message  to  Congress,  December  3,  1901 :  "The 
forests  are  natural  reservoirs.  By  restraining  the 
streams  in  flood  and  replenishing  them  in  drought 
they  make  possible  the  use  of  water  otherwise 
wasted.  Forest  conservation  is  therefore  an 
essential  condition  to  water  conservation." 

This  is  a  development  scheme  of  stupendous 
proportions.  It  is  worthy  of  the  genius  and  enter- 
prise of  the  American  people  who,  as  a  people,  are 
now  pledged  to  execute  these  plans. 

Windbreaks. — In  the  subhumid  sections  of  the 
central  West,  particularly  eastern  North  Dakota, 
eastern  South  Dakota,  central  Nebraska,  western 
Kansas,  central  Oklahoma  and  central  Texas, 
windbreaks  are  frequently  of  great  service  for  pro- 
tecting the  ground  from  the  sweep  of  dry  winds, 
which  evaporate  much  moisture  from  the  soil,  and 
often  blow  the  lighter  soils  into  drifts.  Sometimes 


FARM  IRRIGATION  279 

crops  of  grains  are  literally  blown  out  of  the  ground 
after  they  are  3  to  5  inches  high,  their  roots  being 
uncovered  by  the  blowing  away  of  2  or  3  inches  of 
soil.  Even  slight  barriers,  as  fences,  lessen  the 
injury  from  wind  for  a  distance  of  several  hundred 
feet  to  leeward.  Lombardy  poplars,  cottonwoods 
and  locusts  are  commonly  used  for  high  windbreaks, 
and  Russian  mulberry  and  the  shrubby  Artemisia 
for  low  hedges.  A  cottonwood  windbreak  40  feet 
high  has  a  beneficial  influence  to  a  distance  of 
650  feet  to  the  leeward,  preventing  the  soil  from 
drying  out  rapidly  and  from  drifting. 

In  the  plains  states  where  these  conditions  prevail, 
windbreaks  should  always  be  provided ;  they  are  es- 
pecially needed  in  the  sukhumid  sections  wnere  irri- 
gation is  not  possible,  and  the  rainfall  is  scanty. 
The  plants  of  a  windbreak  do  steal  much  moisture 
from  the  adjacent  land,  but  in  windy  sections  they 
save  much  more  than  they  steal,  by  keeping  drying 
winds  from  hugging  the  ground.  Broad  fields 
should  be  avoided  and,  if  possible,  a  system  of 
rotation  should  be  adopted  that  will  keep  fields  in 
alternate  strips  of  grass  or  clover  and  tilled  land. 


CHAPTER  XI 

MAINTAINING   THE    FERTILITY   OP   THE  SOIL 

THE  greatest  problem  in  farming  is  that  of 
maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  its  power  to  produce 
crops.  It  is  not  mere  plant  food;  it  is  water, 
air,  sunlight,  plant  food,  temperature,  soil  bacteria, 
and  all  the  other  factors  and  conditions  that 
make  a  soil  habitable  for  plants.  It  is  concerned 
with  the  texture  of  the  soil  as  much  as  with  its 
richness;  and  its  water-moving  power  as  much  as 
its  composition.  Plant  food  is  but  one  of  many 
conditions  necessary  to  the  growth  of  crops,  and 
often  it  is  the  least  essential  condition.  The 
fgrjtility  of  the  soil  is  the  sum  of  all  the  conditions 
that  make  it  possible  for  the  seed  to  sprout,  the 
blade  to  spread  and  the  ear  to  ripen.  It  is  the  in- 
herent power  of  the  soil  to  produce  crops. 

The  problem '  of  maintaining  or  restoring  the 
fertility  of  farm  soils,  then,  is  much  broader  than 
that  of  merely  adding  plant  food  to  them:  When 
we  speak  of  fertility  we  naturally  think  first  of 
manures,  fertilisers  and  other  means  of 'enriching 
the  soil.  These  are  very  important  sources  of  in- 
creased fertility,  but  fertility  is  not  as  dependent 
upon  them  as  many  believe.  KThe  way  in  which  a 
soil  is  handled  has  fully  as  much  to  do  with  its 
fertility  as  its  composition,  or  the  amount  of  plant 
food  added  to  it.  It  depends  upon  plpwing,  har- 
rowing, cultivating,  rolling,  draining,  irrigating  and 
all  other  tillage  and  cultural- operations  fully  as 

£80 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    281 

much  as  upon  manuring,  fertilising,  fallowing  and 
the  like.  ,  A  really  comprehensive  discussion  of 
soil  fertility  should  consider  all  the  ways  in  which 
a  soil  is  handled  or  is  acted  upon  by  natural  forces, 
as  well  as  means  of  enriching  it,  and  of  conserving 
native  richness.  The  methods  of  handling  soil  and 
their  relation  to  productivity  have  been  discussed 
in  previous  chapters.  The  remaining  chapters 
will  be  devoted  to  the  methods  of  enriching  soils 
and  husbanding  natural  resources. 

Many  Views. — There  are  many  views,  and  un- 
avoidably many  conflicting  views,  on  this  great 
problem.  Some  seek  to  solve  it  in  one  way  and 
some  in  another.  Certain  men  lay  most  stress  on 
the  texture  of  the  soil  and  the  movement  of  soil 
water  as  a  measure  of  the  producing  power  of  a 
soil.  Others  emphasise  thorough  tillage  above 
all  else.  Another  says,  "Grow  clover  and  plow  it 
under;  it  is  the  key  to  fertility."  Others  lay 
stress  upon  good  texture  and  the  addition  of  humus. 
We  hear  something  of  inoculating  the  soil  to 
make  it  fertile.  Even  now  the  most  commonly  ac- 
cepted views  on  soil  fertility  have  been  challenged 
by  an  eminent  soil  physicist  whose  conclusions,  if 
accepted,  will  almost  revolutionise  our  views  about 
the  effect  of  manures  and  fertilisers  on  soils.  In 
addition  to  this  honest  difference  of  opinion,  there 
are  many  quack  remedies  for  preserving  or  restor- 
ing soil  fertility.  The  following  pages  present 
the  views  most  commonly  accepted  at  .this  time. 

THE    NATIVE    RICHNESS    OF    SOILS 

Plant  food  is  not  fertility,  but  it  has  a  very  im- 
portant influence  on  fertility.  A  soil's  power  to 
produce  crops  is  very  rarely  measured  by  the 


282  SOILS 

amount  of  plant  food  it  contains,  yet  mere  richness 
is  a  very  valuable  asset  of  a  farm  soil,  and  no  man 
can  afford  to  disregard  it  in  the  modern  emphasis 
on  good  texture  and  other  desirable  attributes. 

The  actual  richness  of  a  soil  in  plant  food  de- 
pends largely  upon  its  origin  and  its  fineness.  A 
leachy,  sandy  soil,  for  example,  is  not  likely  to  con- 
tain more  tnan  a  third  as  much  plant  food  as  an 
alluvial  clay;  a  limestone  soil  is  usually  richer  than 
a  slate  soil,  and  so  on. 

The  Soil  a  Storehouse  of  Plant  Food. — The  point 
that  needs  to  be  emphasised  most,  however,  is  not 
that  farm  soils  vary  greatly  in  native  richness,  but 
that  practically  all  farm  soils,  including  those  that 
we  consider  poor,  contain  a  vast  amount  of  plant 
food. 

The  analyses  of  representative  soils  in  the 
Appendix  show  that  all  of  them  contain  almost 
unbelievable  quantities  of  the  plant  foods  that  we 
buy  and  apply  so  grudgingly.  An  average  farm 
soil  usually  contains  about  4,000  Ibs.  of  nitro- 
gen, 6,000  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  20,000 
Ibs.  of  potash  per  acre  in  the  upper  eight 
inches  of  soil.  "Worn-out"  soils,  which  scarcely 
produce  enough  to  pay  for  cropping  them,  often 
contain  nearly  as  much  plant  food  as  this — while 
some  rich  soils  have  over  6,000  Ibs.  of  nitrogen, 
10,000  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  50,000  Ibs.  of 
potash  per  acre  in  the  first  eight  inches.  Besides  all 
this  large  amount  of  plant  food  in  the  surface  soil, 
the  soil  below  the  first  eight  inches  usually  con- 
tains nearly  as  much,  and  a  part  of  this  can  be  used 
by  the  roots  of  most  farm  crops. 

These  figures  are  astounding  to  those  who  have 
believed  that  a  soil  gradually  ceases  to  be  produc- 
tive because  the  plant  food  in  it  becomes  exhausted. 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    283 

The  chemists  give  us  indisputable  proof  that  even 
a  soil  that  has  become  so  "poor"  that  it  hardly 
pays  to  crop  it,  is  likely  to  have  stored  within  it  tons 
upon  tons  of  plant  food;  that  it  is  in  no  way  ex- 
hausted, as  we  have  been  taught  to  believe.  Yet 
the  fact  remains  that  this  same  soil  will  not  pro- 
duce large  crops.  What,  then,  is  the  trouble  ? 

Plant  Food  Locked  Up. — Much  of  the  tons  of 
plant  food  that  the  chemist  finds  in  ordinary  farm 
soils,  is  "locked  up",  or  unavailable,  from  two 
causes.  In  the  first  place  it  may  not  be  in  the  right 
form  for  plants  to  use,  it  may  be  in  a  compound 
that  is  distasteful  to  the  plants;  or  it  may  be  in  a 
form  that  is  not  soluble  in  soil  water,  so  that  it 
cannot  be  absorbed  by  the  roots.  Plants  accept 
food  only  when  it  is  in  a  certain  form.  The  chem- 
ist, however,  cannot  tell  how  much  of  the  total 
amount  of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
that  he  finds  in  soil  is  in  such  shape  that  plants  can 
use  it.  He  cannot  determine  with  any  degree  of 
certainty  what  proportion  of  the  4,000  Ibs.  of  ni- 
trogen, 6,000  IDS.  of  phosphoric  acid  and  20,000 
Ibs  of  potash  that  are  in  an  acre  of  average  farm 
soil  is  in  the  right  form  for  crops  to  use.  There 
is  no  way  of  finding  out  this  very  important  point 
except  to  grow  plants  upon  the  soil. 

Poor  Texture*  a  Cause  of  Infertility. — Part  of 
this  great  amount  of  plant  food  that  is  found  in  all 
ordinary  farm  soils  may  have  been  made  useless  to 
crops,  for  the  time  being,  by  poor  texture,  lack  of 
warmth  and  poor  drainage. 

Mere  richness  in  plant  food  avails  nothing  if 
there  is  not  enough  water  to  make  a  very  large 
quantity  of  a  weak  solution  of  that  food  for  the  roots 
to  absorb.  The  arid  lands  of  the  West  are  very 
rich  in  plant  food,  but  are  valueless  for  cropping 


284  SOILS 

until  water  is  applied  to  them.  In  many  cases  the 
amount  of  water  in  the  soil  measures  its  producing 
power  more  than  the  amount  of  plant  food  in  it. 
Furthermore,  the  tons  of  plant  food  in  a  soil  are  as 
valueless  as  sand  unless  the  soil  has  the  power  to 
move  water  rapidly  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  crop. 

Under-drainage  may  make  an  unproductive,  yet 
rich,  soil  productive.  Plowing  under  green- 
manures  may  effect  a  similar  improvement.  These 
methods  are  discussed  in  detail  in  subsequent 
chapters.  The  point  to  be  emphasised  is  that 
although  most  farm  soils  are  very  rich  in  plant  food, 
usually  but  a  small  percentage  of  this  can  be  used 
by  crops,  and  that  tillage,  drainage,  a  rotation  of 
crops  and  the  addition  of  humus  are  methods  of 
increasing  the  usefulness  of  native  plant  food. 

SOILS    EXHAUSTED    OF   PLANT   FOOD 

We  ordinarily  think  that  a  soil  becomes  ex- 
hausted of  plant  food  chiefly  by  continuous  cropping. 
We  see  the  yields  from  a  soil  that  produced  sixty 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre  fifty  years  ago,  when  it  was 
virgin,  gradually  dwindle  to  twenty-five  bushels, 
with  prospects  of  going  lower  still.  On  the  face  of 
it,  this  is  due  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  plant  food  in 
the  soil  by  the  corn  crop.  But  is  it  ?  The  drain  of 
crops  upon  the  soil's  store  of  plant  food  is  really 
so  slight,  when  compared  witn  the  total  amount 
of  plant  food  in  the  soil,  that  it  is  scarcely  worth 
mentioning  as  a  cause  of  the  increasing  unpro- 
ductiveness of  that  soil.  A  crop  of  cotton  of  one 
bale  per  acre,  which  is  twice  the  average  yield, 
makes  a  draft  upon  the  soil  of  28  Ibs.  of  nitrogen, 
9  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  13  Ibs.  of  potash  each 
year  per  acre.  A  crop  of  50  bushels  corn  per  acre 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    285 

removes  96  Ibs.  of  nitrogen,  33  Ibs.  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  68  Ibs.  of  potash  each  year  per  acre.  A 
crop  of  1^  tons  of  hay  per  acre  removes  35  Ibs.  of 
nitrogen,  7  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid  and  39  Ibs.  of 
potash;  of  wheat,  at  the  average  yield  of  14  bushels 
per  acre,  33  Ibs.  of  nitrogen,  10  Ibs.  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  17  Ibs.  of  potash. 

Compare1  these  small  amounts  of  plant  food 
removed  by  average  crops  with  the  vast  amounts 
that  are  in  ordinary  soils.  What  are  they  when 
compared  with  the  4,000  Ibs.  of  nitrogen,  6,000 
Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid  and  20,000  Ibs.  of  potash 
that  the  upper  8  inches  of  an  average  soil  contains ! 
In  addition  to  all  this  is  the  undeveloped 
richness  of  the  subsoil,  which  becomes  of  use 
from  year  to  year.  The  average  soil  ought  to 
produce  bumper  crops  for  hundreds  of  years  with- 
out adding  any  fertiliser,  if  we  considered  but  two 
facts — the  great  amount  of  plant  food  in  the  soil, 
and  the  very  small  amount  removed  by  crops. 
But  other  things  must  be  considered.  If  only 
a  small  part  of  the  4,000  Ibs.  of  nitrogen,  6,000  Ibs. 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  20,000  Ibs.  of  potash  is 
available  to  plants — as  is  usually  the  case — the 
drain  of  the  crop  upon  this  amount  of  available 
plant  food  may  be  quite  heavy.  This  is  especially 
true  on  the  light  and  leachy  soils,  from  which  the 
soluble  plant  food  is  quickly  lost  by  leaching.  In 
other  words,  the  amounts  of  plant  food  drawn  from 
the  soil  by  farm  crops  makes  little  impression  upon 
the  total  amount  that  is  in  it,  but  it  often  does  make 
a  decided  impression  upon  the  amount  of  soluble 
or  available  plant  food  in  the  soil,  which  is,  after 
all,  the  kind  of  plant  food  that  is  of  chief  interest 
to  the  farmer. 

The  gradual  decrease  in  yields  on  soils  that  have 


286  SOILS 

been  cropped  for  many  years  is  occasionally  due, 
in  part,  to  the  exhaustion  of  soluble  plant  food. 
Usually  it  is  due,  wholly  or  largely,  to  the  way  in 
which  the  soil  has  been  handled.  It  is  more  apt 
to  be  a  problem  in  improving  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil  than  in  enriching  it.  This  fact 
has  been  proved  on  thousands  of  American  farms, 
where  better  tillage,  more  thorough  drainage, 
rotation  of  crops,  green  manuring  and  other 
methods  of  improving  the  texture  of  a  soil  have 
been  practised.  These  matters  are  discussed  at 
length  in  other  chapters. 

LOSS   OF   FERTILITY  BY   EROSION 

Not  all  of  the  plant  food  that  is  lost  each  year  from 
farms  is  carried  off  in  crops.  A  far  more  damag- 
ing cause  of  reduced  yields  on  some  farms  is 
erosion,  or  the  washing  of  soil.  This  removes  the 
best  part  of  it — the  surface  soil  that  has  been  made 
fine  and  has  had  its  plant  food  made  soluble  by 
weathering. 

The  loss  of  fertility  by  erosion  is  one  of  the 
greatest  leaks  on  American  farms.  The  chief 
reason  why  erosion  is  so  dangerous  is  that  it  is 
insidious.  Its  ravages  are  not  very  conspicuous 
until  it  has  done  much  damage.  Erosion  does  not 
ruin  a  soil  in  a  single  night,  or  a  single  season;  it 
starts  from  small  beginnings,  usually  unnoticed, 
and  creeps  stealthily  upon  the  land.  Every  tiny 
rill  trickling  down  the  slope  carries  off  some  of  the 
finest  and  richest  soil  on  the  farm.  After  a  heavy 
rain  the  puddles  in  the  hollows  are  muddy.  The 
deep  furrows  left  up  and  down  the  slope  by  the 
cultivator  teeth  become  miniature  watercourses, 
and  the  trickling  water  exacts  a  tribute  of  rich 


86.     THE  OHIO  RIVER  FLOODING  ITS  MEADOWS 

It  leaves  half  an  inch  of  rich  mud  upon  the  land,  which  is  commonly  used  for  corn.     The. 
fertility  of  many  bottom  lands  is  increased  in  this  way 


87.     PASTURING  WITH  CATTLE 

This  is  the  best  method  of  keeping  the  fertility  of  some  lands,  especially  those  that 
are  steep,  rocky  and  inclined  to  wash 


88.     SHEEP  AT  PASTURE 

They  congregate  at  night  upon  the  hilltops,  which  are  enriched  by  their  droppings. 
In  western  West  Virginia,  ann  elsewhere,  sheep  husbandry  is  a 
popular  method  of  enriching  hill  lands 


soil  before  it  joins  the  large  rill  by  the  road.  The 
cornfield  that  was  left  bare  all  winter  has  lost  some 
of  its  best  loam  by  planting  time.  Gullies  appear 
on  the  farm  here  and  there,  widening  and  deepen- 
ing after  every  rain.  The  soil  on  the  knolls  and 
hills  becomes  thin  and  yellow,  for  the  rich,  blaOk 
surface  soil  has  been  wasned  into  the  bottoms,  and 
part  of  it  has  hurried  off  to  help  build  up  some 
excellent  farming  land  down  stream. 

After  a  heavy  rain  the  farmer  can  see  the  best 
part  of  his  soil  creeping,*  running,  racing  away  from 
nim.  A  thousand  murky  rills  slowly  meander 
across  his  plowed  ground,  and  gather  force  in  the 
hollows.  A  hundred  turbid  rivulets  pour  down 
the  hollows  and  join  waters  in  the  gulch.  A  dozen 
muddy  brooklets  rush  down  the  gulch,  swell  the 
brook  into  a  creek  and  race  down  stream,  bearing 
away  tons  of  the  rich  silt  and  loam  that  make 
plants  grow.  When  the  rain  is  over  and  the  soaked 
soil  has  dried  out  enough  to  till,  there  are  gravelly 
places  that  the  farmer  finds  it  hard  to  malke  pro- 
ductive, and  rocks  are  exposed. 

In  extreme  cases  the  soil  may  be  almost  or  wholly 
ruined  for  cropping  in  a  few  years,  becoming 
gullied  and  thin.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  loss 
is  less  conspicuous,  but  scarcely  less  disastrous. 
This  is  an  exact  report  of  what  is  taking  place 
to-day  on  thousands  of  American  farms. 

The  Great  Loss  by  Erosion  in  the  South. — Every 
farm  that  has  an  irregularity  of  surface,  however 
slight,  pays  tribute  to  the  force  of  moving  water. 
The  most  serious  losses  from  erosion,  however,  are 
on  hill  farms.  The  red  clay  soils  of  the  South,  and 
especially  in  the  uplands  of  Tennessee,  Georgia, 
the  Carolinas,  Mississippi  and  along  the  banks  of 
the  Ohio  River,  are  gouged  and  gullied  every  year, 


288  SOILS 

unless  properly  handled,  until  they  may  become 
almost  or  quite  useless  for  cropping 

W.  J.  McGee  reports:  "The  destruction  is  not 
confined  to  a  single  field,  or  to  a  single  upland,  but 
extends  over  much  of  the  uplanoT.  ...  It 
is  probably  within  the  truth  to  estimate  that  10 
per  cent,  of  upland  Mississippi  has  been  so  far 
converted  into  bad  lands  as  to  be  practically  ruined 
for  agriculture  under  existing  commercial  con- 
ditions, and  that  the  annual  loss  in  real  estate 
exceeds  the  revenue  from  all  sources;  and  all  this 
havoc  has  been  wrought  within  a  quarter  century." 
This  is  an  extreme  case,  but  it  illustrates  what  is 


)lace,  in  a  lesser  degree,  in  many  other  parts 
of  the  South. 

We  have  thousands  of  square  miles  of  lands  that 
are  rapidly  approaching  desolation  by  erosion. 
Over  a  large  area  the  work  of  destruction  has 
already  gone  so  far  as  to  make  it  impracticable  to 
try  to  save  the  land  for  cropping.  The  problem  of 
erosion  is  most  serious  on  the  hill  farms  of  the 
South ;  but  hill  lands  in  California,  eastern  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  Montana,  have  been  grazed  so 
close  that  the  soil  has  been  exposed,  gullies  have 
appeared,  and  the  lands  are  now  nearly  worthless. 
Erosion  is  also  serious  on  sloping  lands  in  all  other 
parts  of  the  country. 

METHODS   OF   CHECKING   EROSION 

I 

The  method  that  will  be  most  practicable  de- 
pends upon  the  locality,  the  contour  of  the  land,  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  the  crop  and  other  local  matters. 

Preserve  Forests  and  Wooded  Strips. — In  extreme 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  retain  wooded  areas  running 
across  the  slopes  that  are  subject  to  washing. 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    289 

If  the  land  is  hilly  and  will  probably  wash 
badly  if  cleared,  the  less  of  it  that  is*  cleared,  the 
better.  We  rarely  find  bad  gullies  in  woodlands, 
even  on  the  steepest  hillsides;  the  roots  of  trees 
hold  the  soil  and  the  humus  beneath  them  ab- 
sorbs and  holds  the  water,  preventing  it  from 
gathering  in  channels.  Moreover,  much  of  the 
rainfall  does  not  reach  the  soil,  being  intercepted 
by  the  foliage  and  evaporated  before  it  reaches  the 
ground.  The  direct  force  of  the  rain  is  also  bro- 
ken. It  may  be  wiser  to  farm  only  the  bottom  land 
and  gentle  slopes,  and  cultivate  them  more  in- 
tensely, than  to  clear  uplands  that  are  bound  to 
wash  badly  after  most  of  the  humus  in  them  is 
destroyed  by  cropping. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  clear  long  slopes  much  may 
be  done  to  prevent  serious  loss  from  erosion  by 
alternating  strips  of  forest  with  strips  of  tilled  or 
pasture  land.  The  retaining  strips  of  forest  should 
be  twenty  or  more  rods  wide,  depending  upon  the 
steepness  of  the  slope,  and  should  run  diagonally 
across  the  slope  or  follow  the  contour  of  it.  It  is 
especially  necessary  to  keep  the  tops  of  hills  in 
forest,  because  there  is  where  the  water  be- 
gins to  collect;  moreover,  the  soil  of  hill-tops  is 
apt  to  be  thinner  and  poorer  than  soil  lower  down 
the  slope. 

Slopes  that  have  already  been  cleared  and  have 
started  to  wash  badly  may  have  strips  of  woods 
planted  across  them.  In  a  surprisingly  short 
time  trees  will  make  an  effective  barrier  to  erosion. 
It  may  be  wise  to  give  up  an  entire  slope  that  is 
washing  badly  to  forest  growth.  Native  trees 
usually  come  in  quickly,  but  if  they  do  not  seeds  or 
seedlings  may  be  planted. 

Planting    Trees    to    Prevent    Erosion.  —  When 


290  SOILS 

planting  forest  trees  to  prevent  or  check  erosion,  if 
the  land  is  not  too  rougn  or  stony,  it  is  best  first  to 
plow  the  land  deeply.  Most  tree  seeds  are  benefited 
by  partial  shade  the  first  year  and  may  be  sown 
with  a  field  crop,  as  peas,  oats,  or  other  grain. 
These  seeds  may  be  of  such  quick-growing  trees  as 
white  maple,  loblolly  pine,  elm,  green  and  white- ash, 
and  black  locust.  The  seeds  should  be  gathered 
as  soon  as  ripe  and  sown  immediately.  From  three 
to  five  bushels  of  the  winged  seeds  snould  be  sown, 
and  others  in  proportion  according  to  size.  It  is 
best  to  sow  each  kind  separately  and  thickly  enough 
to  secure  a  dense  stand.  The  quick-growing  trees, 
as  elm,  soft  maple,  and  ash,  are  not  as  valuable  for 
timber  as  hardwood  trees.  Black  locust  and  loblolly 
pine  are  among  the  most  useful  trees  for  this  pur- 
pose. Catalpa  speciosa  and  chestnut  may  also  be 
used  to  advantage. 

Transplanting  seedlings  is  more  expensive  than 
seeding  and  the  results  are  more  or  less  uncertain, 
so  it  should  be  done  only  when  seeding  is  impracti- 
cable. Soft-wooded  sorts,  as  the  poplars,  box  elder, 
also  the  catalpa,  are  most  commonly  propagated  by 
cuttings.  The  cuttings  should  be  13  to  16  inches 
long,  of  two-  or  three-year-old  wood,  and  should  be 
taken  in  late  winter.  The  lower  ends  are  laid  in 
water  until  planting.  They  are  planted  most 
rapidly  with  a  dibble  and  so  deep  that  only  two 
or  three  buds  are  above  ground. 

If  trees  for  transplanting  are  to  be  grown  from 
seed  make  beds  3  to  4  feet  wide  in  a  rich  mellow 
soil ;  cover  the  seeds  lightly,  and  mulch  with  forest 
leaves  until  they  have  germinated.  Shade  the  beds 
by  piling  brush  and  boughs  upon  them,  or  by  build- 
ing lath  roofs  over  them,  an  open  space  the  width  of 
a  lath  being  left  between  laths.  The  seedlings  are 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    291 

ready  to  transplant  when  two  to  four  years  old. 
In  many  cases  it  may  only  be  necessary  to  dig  wild 
seedlings.  Seedlings  two  to  four  years  old  are  often 
found  in  great  numbers  on  the  outskirts  of  wood- 
land. Set  all  plants,  whether  seedlings  or  cuttings, 
not  more  than  three  feet  apart  each  way,  giving 
5,000  to  7,000  per  acre.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
well  to  make  a  first  planting  of  the  quick-growing 
softwood  trees,  and  plant  the  hardwood  trees 
later. 

Directing  Water. — Much  may  be  done  to  check 
erosion  bv  directing  the  water  into  legitimate 
channels,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  meander  over  the 
fields,  making  channels  that  broaden  and  deepen 
with  each  rain.  Careful  farmers  spend  consider- 
able time  in  their  fields  during  and  after  heavy 
rains,  guiding,  checking,  and  diverting  the  rivulets. 
In  most  fields  there  are  a  number  of  depressions, 
or  natural  water  courses,  that  should  be  kept  free 
of  obstructions. 

Terracing. — One  of  the  most  common  en- 
deavours to  check  erosion  in  the  South  is  by  ter- 
racing. Much  of  the  farm  land  in  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama and  the  Carolinas  is  terraced.  The  slope 
is  laid  off  into  a  series  of  checks  which  follow  the 
contour,  giving  a  series  of  nearly  perfectly  level 
steps  upon  which  water  may  remain  and  be  ab- 
soroed.  The  width  of  these  varies  from  50  to  300 
feet.  The  banks  of  the  terrace  are  usually  sodded 
or  seeded  with  grass.  The  land  between  me  banks 
is  brought  to  an  approximate  level,  sometimes  by 
scraping  but  more  commonly  by  moving  it  down 
hill  gradually  with  a  reversible  plow;  it  often 
requires  several  years  to  bring  the  surface  into  a 
level  condition. 

Side-hill  Ditches. — Another  method  is  to  build 


292  SOILS 

side-hill  ditches,  which  follow  the  contour  and  have 
a  fall  of  1  to  5  inches  in  100  feet.  They  are  6  to 
10  feet  apart  on  a  very  steep  slope  and  15  to  30 
feet  apart  on  a  gentle  slope.  The  ditches  are 
made  mostly  with  a  plow.  They  should.be  sodded 
with  grass.  There  should  be  no  low  places  where 
the  water  will  collect  and  break  through.  Unless 
built  with  great  care  they  are  apt  to  scour  or  break. 

Terraces  and  side-hill  ditches  are  not  used  now 
as  much  as  formerly.  They  prevent  washing  in 
many  cases,  but  they  occupy  land  that  ought  to  be 
in  crops  and  they  breed  weeds.  The  land  is  cut 
up  into  small  fields,  increasing  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. In  many  cases  terraced  or  ditched  hillsides 
wash  badly.  Deep  plowing  and  green-manuring 
are  usually  more  serviceable  than  terracing  for 
preventing  these  soils  from  washing,  and  all  the 
land  can  Tbe  cropped. 

Holding  the  Land  With  Soil-binding  Plants. — 
This  is  the  most  practicable  solution  in  many  cases, 
especially  on  gentle  slopes.  If  erosion  has  not  pro- 
gressed so  far  that  the  land  will  not  grow  a  thick 
turf,  the  slope  may  often  be  made  into  a  pasture  or 
meadow  with  gratifying  results.  Grass  roots  hold 
the  soil  tenaciously  and  the  stubble  divides  surface 
water  and  prevents  it  from  accumulating.  But 
it  is  often  difficult  to  get  a  close  turf  established. 

Grasses  with  creeping  root-stalks,  like  Bermuda 
grass,  are  most  valuable  for  this  purpose.  Ber- 
muda grass  is  the  salvation  of  many  Southern  hill- 
sides. It  makes  a  very  dense  turf  in  a  remark- 
ably short  time.  Sometimes  it  is  established  in 
this  way:  Shallow  furrows  are  plowed  diagonally 
across  the  slope,  4  to  6  feet  apart.  Small  pieces  of 
Bermuda  grass  are  dropped  in  the  furrows,  2  to  3 
feet  apart,  and  covered.  Bermuda  grass  spreads 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    293 

with  great  rapidity  by  means  of  its  underground 
stems.  In  two  years  it  has  filled  the  furrow  and 
the  field  is  then  plowed  diagonally  across  the  fur- 
rows. This  distributes  the  grass  and  it  soon  takes 
complete  possession  of  the  land,  effectually  pre- 
venting further  washing.  Bermuda  grass  makes 
excellent  hay  and  pasturage. 

Other  grasses  besides  Bermuda  have  distinct 
merit  as  soil  binders.  In  the  North  the  Hungarian 
brome  grass  is  especially  valuable  for  this  purpose. 
The  little  Lespedeza,  or  Japanese  clover,  that 
comes  naturally  into  cleared  ground  and  pastures 
in  many  parts  of  the  South,  is  a  useful  soil-binder, 
and  valuable  for  pasturage.  It  is  moreover,  a 
leguminous  plant  and  enriches  the  soil.  The  in- 
creasing use  of  cover  crops  shows  the  growing 
appreciation  of  the  loss  by  erosion  on  bare  lands 
during  the  winter  and  early  spring.  Ry'e  or  crim- 
son clover,  sown  at  the  last  cultivation  of  corn, 
covers  the  field  with  a  mat  of  herbage  during  the 
winter,  effectively  preventing  serious  washing  of 
the  soil.  Other  benefits  of  cover  crops  are 
considered  in  the  following  chapter. 

Breaks. — Any  material  used  to  check  small 
gullies  is  called  a  "break,"  in  the  South.  Corn 
stalks,  cotton  stems,  brush  and  inferior  hay  are 
commonly  used  for  this  purpose.  The  material  is 
usually  laid  lengthwise  or  the  gully,  making  a  dam, 
which  should  be  wide  enough  and  high  enough  to 
back  up  the  water  and  deposit  the  soil  it  contains. 
If  the  gully  is  large  it  may  be  necessary  to  hold 
down  the  brush  with  logs  or  poles,  the  ends  of  which 
are  firmly  fastened  into  the  sides  of  the  gully  and 
braced  with  stones;  if  small,  a  few  forkfuls 
of  stalks  or  brush  may  answer.  Willow, 
poplar,  or  alder  are  preferred  for  making  a 


294  SOILS 

brush  break  on  uncultivated  land  because  they 
often  sprout,  take  root  and  then  permanently 
hold  the  soil. 

Breaks  are  almost  indispensable  to  good  farming 
in  many  parts  of  the  South  and  ought  to  be  used 
more  on  the  upland  farms  of  other  parts  of  the 
country.  The  practice  of  searching  for  gullies  and 
checking  them  with  breaks  should  be  as  much  a 
part  of  farm  routine  as  plowing  and  seeding.  Care- 
ful farmers  go  over  all  their  cultivated  land  several 
times  a  year  and  check  gullies.  A  gully  that  can 
be  stopped  with  a  forkful  of  brush  to-day  may  need 
half  a  wagon  load  if  left  a  year.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  breaks  are  a  temporary 
expedient.  The  real  trouble  is  the  inability  of  the 
soil  to  absorb  much  water  rapidly.  Deep  plowing, 
green  manuring  or  sodding  may  effect  a  permanent 
improvement. 

increasing  the  Water-holding  Capacity  o)  the 
Soil. — The  more  readily  a  soil  absorbs  water, 
the  more  it  can  hold  without  running  over  as  sur- 
face drainage,  and  hence  the  less  likely  is  it  to  be 
injured  by  erosion.  The  soils  most  commonly 
subject  to  gullying  are  clays.  These  absorb  water 
very  slowly,  so  that  during  a  heavy  rain  a  very 
large  percentage  of  the  water  is  not  absorbed  by 
the  soil — even  though  the  soil  is  quite  dry — but 
flows  off  as  surface  drainage,  causing  erosion. 
One  of  the  most  practicable  ways  of  checking 
erosion  is  to  increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of 
the  soil  by  under-drainage,  by  adding  humus  and 
by  deep  plowing.  The  soils  that  are  most  com- 
monly subject  to  erosion,  however,  it  is  not  usually 
practicable  to  underdrain;  the  addition  of  humus 
and  deep  plowing  are  more  serviceable.  Plowing 
under  green-manuring  crops  makes  these  gullying 


clay  soils  lighter  and  more  porous,  so  that  they 
absorb  more  water,  and  absorb  it  much  faster. 

Deep  plowing  increases  the  depth  of  the  soil 
that  can  nold  mm  water,  so  that  less  runs  off  on 
top.  Shallow  plowing  makes  the  soil  reservoir 
shallow,  so  that  rains  quickly  fill  it,  spill  over  it, 
and  run  down  the  surface.  The  one-negro-one 
mule-one-shallow-working-plow  combination  is  re- 
sponsible for  much  of  me  washing  of  Southern 
hill  farms.  Land  has  been  plowed  for  years  not 
over  four  or  five  inches  deep,  when  it  ought  to  be 
plowed  not  less  than  eignt  inches  deep. 

Tillage  Operations  Affecting  Erosion. — The  sim- 
ple precaution  of  running  the  rows  of  crops  across 
the  slope,  not  up  and  down  it,  so  that  the  culti- 
vation furrows  may  not  be  in  a  line  with  gravity, 
will  do  much  to  prevent  erosion.  The  furrows  be- 
come watercourses  during  very  heavy  rain.  The 
loss  in  this  way  is  especially  serious  if  the  furrows  are 
left  running  up  and  down  slopes  during  the  winter. 
Every  upland  farmer  is  familiar  with  the  triangular 
patches  of  fine  soil  at  the  lower  ends  of  these  fur- 
rows in  the  spring.  The  aggregate  loss  in  this  way 
may  be  very  great.  The  rows  of  crops  should  be 
kept  as  nearly  on  a  level  as  possible,  even  though 
this  necessitates  many  windings.  We  are  often 
told  that  straight  rows  look  business-like,  and 
crooked  rows  slovenly.  That  is  trye  for  the 
prairie  farmer  but  not  for  the  upland  farmer. 

Broad-tooth  cultivators  leave  the  soil  in  deep 
furrows  and  high  ridges,  and  so  assist  erosion. 
The  broad  "sweep"  and  plow-like  cultivators  so 
commonly  used  for  "laying  by"  cotton  and  corn 
are  the  worst  offenders.  Sweeps  do  excellent 
service  in  cutting  off  weeds,  but  they  leave  the  soil 
much  ridged  and  furrowed,  the  beginnings  of 


296  SOILS 

gullies.  Tools  of  this  character  are  often  indis- 
pensable, but  the  furrows  they  make  should  be 
levelled  off  with  a  shallow- working  implement,  as  a 
spike-tooth  cultivator. 

The  practice  of  ridging  corn,  potatoes,  cotton, 
and  other  crops  is  responsible  for  much  gullying. 
Unless  ridging  is  made  necessary  by  poor  drainage, 
it  is  rarely  a  profitable  practice.  Deep  plowing 
and  deep  planting  may  accomplish  the  same  re- 
sult, with  less  danger.  Level  culture  should  be 
practised  wherever  erosion  is  likely  to  be  serious. 

The  somewhat  detailed  attention  given  to  ero- 
sion in  this  chapter  is  not  out  of  proportion  to  its 
importance  in  the  farm  economy  of  this  country. 
Erosion  is  stealing  from  many  farms  the  fertility 
that  should  have  been  bequeathed  to  posterity. 
There  should  be  an  increasing  concern  among 
farmers  about  this  phase  of  soil  fertility. 

FALLOWING   AND    SOIL   FERTILITY 

Fallowing — leaving  land  uncropped  for  one  or 
more  seasons — was  a  common  farm  practice  up  to 
the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  The  Mosaic 
law  commanded  that  land  should  be  fallowed  one 
year  in  seven.  At  present  it  is  rarely  practised  in 
America,  except  in  the  arid  regions,  although  still 
quite  popular  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  The 
chief  reason  for  this  is  the  rapid  improvement  of 
tillage  tools.  The  crude  tillage  tools  of  earlier 
years  pulverised  the  soil  so  imperfectly,  that  the  in- 
crease in  available  plant  food  by  weathering  was 
very  slow;  hence  crops  quickly  exhausted  the 
soil.  It  was  soon  noticed  that  if  land  was 
cultivated  while  it  was  being  rested  it  would  be 
more  productive  thereafter.  The  chief  advantage 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    297 

of  the  old-time  fallowing  was  that  it  promoted 
weathering  and  so  increased  the  amount  of 
soluble  plant  food  in  the  few  inches  of  surface 
soil  that  were  stirred  by  the  clumsy  tools  of  that 
time.  Modern  tillage  tools  prepare  the  soil  so 
thoroughly  and  deeply  that  a  larger  area  is  laid 
under  tribute,  and  weathering,  and  other  agencies 
that  increase  fertility,  have  a  better  opportunity  to 
work.  There  are  still  occasions,  however,  when 
fallowing  is  beneficial  and  sometimes  very  essential. 

Fallowing  to  Store  Water. — The  value  of  fallow- 
ing in  American  farming  is  chiefly  in  storing 
water  in  the  soil  and  cleaning  the  land  of  weeds, 
rather  than  in  increasing  the  amount  of  soluble 
plant  food  in  the  soil.  In  the  semi-arid  and 
arid  sections  of  the  West  where  "dry  farming" 
is  practised,  fallowing  is  often  indispensable.  The 
land  is  cropped  one  year  and  fallowed  the  next,  or  it 
is  fallowed  one  year  in  three.  Fallowed  land  is 
plowed  and  harrowed  so  that  the  soil  will  receive 
and  hold  all  the  rainfall.  Where  the  rainfall  is 
less  than  ten  to  fifteen  inches  such  a  proceeding 
may  be  absolutely  necessary.  King  found  that 
the  fallowed  part  of  a  certain  field  contained  203 
tons  more  water  per  acre  in  the  spring  succeeding 
the  fallow  than  the  part  that  was  not  fallowed. 
Even  at  the  end  of  the  season,  after  large  crops  of 
grain  had  been  taken  from  the  land,  it  contained 
179  tons  of  water  more  than  the  unfallowed  land. 
This  shows  that  summer  fallowing  has  a  marked 
and  lasting  influence  on  the  moisture  content  of 
soils.  It  is  likely  that  fallowing  to  store  water  will 
always  be  practised  in  America  far  more  than 
fallowing  for  any  other  specific  purpose. 

Fallowing  to  Set  Free  Plant  Food. — Fallowing 
increases  the  amount  of  available  plant  food  in  the 


298  SOILS 

soil,  especially  nitrogen.  The  soil  of  the  fallow 
field  is  stirred  frequently  and  is  warm  and  moist, 
conditions  that  are  favourable  to  making  inert 
plant  food  soluble.  This  plant  food  is  stored  for 
the  crop  of  another  year  unless  the  soil  is  leachy, 
in  whicn  case  much  of  the  quickly  soluble  nitrogen 
may  be  lost.  This  is  the  chief  disadvantage  of 
fallowing  on  certain  soils.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  is 
ever  wise  to  fallow  land  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  its  supply  of  available  plant  food. 
Usually  the  same  result  can  be  secured,  without 
losing  the  use  of  the  land,  by  a  rotation  of  crops  and 
better  tillage. 

Fallowing  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  some 
cases  for  cleaning  land  of  weeds,  especially  the 
weeds  that  gain  a  foothold  in  grain  farming.  Bare 
summer  fallowing  is  an  excellent  means  of  getting 
rid  of  both  perennial  and  annual  weeds,  especially 
the  Canadian  thistle.  But  if  summer-fallowed 
land  is  not  kept  harrowed,  fallowing  may  increase 
weediness. 

The  Methods  of  Fallowing. — Land  that  is  to  be 
fallowed  should  be  plowed  early  and  at  once  fitted 
thoroughly.  Most  of  the  weeds  will  immediately 
start  to  grow ;  these  may  then  be  killed  by  plowing 
again  or  by  harrowing.  In  some  sections  fallow 
land  is  plowed  three  times  during  the  season. 
Such  a  mixing  and  interchanging  of  particles 
cannot  help  but  make  a  soil  more  fertile,  as  well  as 
increase  its  moisture  content  and  improve  its  tex- 
ture. In  some  cases  one  plowing  and  one  to  three 
harrowings,  at  intervals  during  the  summer,  may 
be  about  as  effective  as  three  plowings.  The  im- 
portant point  is  to  keep  noxious  weeds  from  start- 
ing; some  fallows  are  allowed  to  become  foul  with 
weeds.  If  the  fallow  is  to  be  followed  by  rye  or 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    299 

wheat,  the  last  plowing  is  usually  given  before  the 
middle  of  August,  so  that  the  soil  may  have  time  to 
settle  and  become  compact  before  seeding. 

Oftentimes  a  short  fallow  may  be  practicable. 
This  consists  simply  in  tilling  the  soil  during  the 
few  weeks  that  may  elapse  between  the  harvesting 
of  one  crop,  as  barley,  clover,  or  oats,  and  the  sow- 
ing of  the  next  crop,  as  wheat.  Occasionally  land 
is  left  idle  for  several  weeks,  or  longer,  when  it 
ought  to  be  at  work,  either  growing  a  green-manure 
to  plow  under,  or  being  subjected  to  the  weathering 
that  is  set  in  motion,  by  tillage. 

Summary  oj  Value  of  Fallowing. — In  American 
farm  practice,  fallowing  is  used  to  advantage  chiefly 
for  increasing  the  water  content  of  soils,  and  for 
cleansing  them  of  weeds,  rather  than  for  increasing 
their  supply  of  available  plant  food  and  improving 
their  texture.  It  is  often  practicable  in  the  dry 
sections  but  rarely  in  the  humid  sections.  It  is  not 
adapted  to  leaohv  soils.  In  this  country  fallowing 
is  practised  chiefly  in  the  arid  and  semi-arid 
regions,  under  dry  farming,  and  mostly  in  the 
culture  of  wheat  and  oats.  ^^ 

ROTATION    OF   CROPS 

•  • 

Rotation  of  crops  is  the  order  or  system  in 
which  crops  are  grown  upon  the  same  land,  and 
refers  to  me  sequence  of  crops  when  a  number  of 
different  kinds  are  grown,  in  distinction  from  the 
one  crop  system. 

Very  early  in  the  history  of  agriculture  it  was 
noticed  that  many  crops  grew  much  better  if  they 
followed  some  other  crops  .than  if  grown  con- 
tinuously on  the  same  land.  Centuries  ago  En- 
glish farmers  divided  their  land  into  three  parts, 


300  SOILS 

one  part  being  in  spring-sown  grain,  another  in 
fall-sown  grain,  the  other  third  being  summer- 
fallowed.  In  more  recent  years  farmers  have 
noticed  that  it  not  only  benefits  some  crops  to  follow 
different  crops,  but  also  that  it  often  makes  a  de- 
cided difference  what  crops  are  associated  in  the 
rotation. 

The  practice  of  growing  different  crops  in  suc- 
cession, instead  of  one  crop  continuously,  did  not 
originate  with  man.  Crop  rotation  is  almost 
universal  in  Nature.  The  oak  forest  is  cut  off  and 
soon  the  land  is  shadowed  with  pines.  The  pines 
grow  lusty,  fall  before  the  woodman's  ax,  and  oaks 
or  white  birches  take  their  place.  The  low-bush 
blueberry  and  the  arbutus  flourish  in  the  hardwood 
clearings.  Everywhere  we  may  see  that  Nature 
rarely  follows  one  of  her  crops  with  another  of  the 
same  kind  of  plant.  The  wise  economy  of  her 
rotations  we  may  study  with  profit. 

WHY   A   ROTATION    IS   BENEFICIAL 

A  rotation  is  usually  beneficial  in  several  ways; 
sometimes  one  benefit  is  most  pronounced,  some- 
times another.  The  explanation  that  one  naturally 
thinks  of  first  is  that  it  affects  the  relative  supply 
of  the  different  plant  foods  in  the  soil.  Every 
farmer  knows  that  some  crops  are  "harder  upon 
the  soil"  than  others.  The  chemist,  also,  says 
that  some  plants  use  more  plant  food  than  others. 
Different  crops  take  from  the  soil,  not  different 
kinds  of  plant  food,  as  some  suppose,  but  different 
amounts  of  the  same  plant  foods.  Thus  wheat 
needs  more  phosphoric  acid  and  less  potash  than 
fruits.  Oats  require  more  potash  than  corn.  Cro]> 
ping  a  soil  continuously  with  corn,  for  example,  is 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    301 

likely  to  exhaust  it  sooner  of  the  available  plant  food 
that  corn  needs  than  if  clover,  wheat  and  potatoes 
are  grown  in  a  rotation  with  corn.  The  producing 
power  of  a  soil  is  measured  by  the  amount  of  the 
essential  plant  food  it  contains  which  is  least 
abundant;  if  it  contains  20,000  Ibs.  of  potash  and 
only  2,000  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  it  can  produce  no 
larger  crops  than  the  supply  of  available  phosphoric 
acid  is  sufficient  to  nourish.  A  rotation  of  crops, 
if  it  is  well  planned,  does  not  subject  the  soil  to  a 
continuous  drain  of  plant  foods  in  the  same  pro- 
portions; it  changes  the  proportions  and  so  makes 
the  plant  food  in  the  soil  go  farther. 

The  Different  Rooting  Habits  of  Crops. — Another 
reason  why  a  rotation  of  crops  is  easier  on  a  soil 
than  single-crop  farming  results  from  the  different 
rooting  habits  of  plants.  Timothy  or  blue  grass, 
for  example,  are  shallow-rooting;  they  draw  most 
of  their  nourishment  from  the  upper  six  inches  of 
soil.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are  deep-rooting;  their 
long  tap  roots  penetrate  many  feet  deep  in  all 
ordinary  soils,  gathering  a  large  amount  of  food 
below  the  depth  to  which  the  roots  of  timothy  and 
blue  grass  penetrate.  The  roots  of  corn  forage 
deeper  than  the  roots  of  oats.  Mangels,  sugar- 
beets  and  parsnips  root  deeper  than  round  turnips 
and  table  beets,  and  so  on  with  other  farm  crops. 

The  relation  of  this  fact  to  soil  fertility  is  the 
advantage  to  the  soil  of  having  crops  grown  upon  it 
that  root  at  different  depths.  A  soil  may  be  almost 
exhausted  of  available  plant  food  for  shallow-rooting 
crops  yet  contain  much  for  deep-rooting  crops. 
The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  thus  conserved  by  ro- 
tating crops  that  not  only  differ  in  their  demands 
upon  the  soil  but  also  in  the  relative  area  of  soil 
that  they  place  under  tribute. 


302  SOILS 

A  third  advantage  of  rotating  crops,  in  its  rela- 
tion to  soil  fertility,  is  the  opportunity  provided  for 
improving  the  texture  of  the  soil.  When  crops  are 
harvested  the  roots  and  stubble  are  plowed  under, 
and  since  crops  vary  in  the  amount  of  herbage 
returned,  and  the  depth  and  extent  of  the  root 
system,  there  is  greater  likelihood  that  all  parts 
will  be  benefited  by  the  humus  resulting  from  the 
decay  of  roots  if  several  crops  are  grown.  Further- 
more, a  rotation  permits  the  use  of  cover  crops, 
catch  crops,  and  other  means  of  improving  texture, 
as  discussed  in  Chapter  XII. 

Rotation  of  Crops  and  Weediness. — Certain  weeds 
go  with  a  certain  crop ;  they  seem  to  find  a  niche  in 
its  cultivation  that  just  fits  their  needs.  Thus 
we  have  quack  grass  in  the  asparagus  bed,  purslane 
in  the  onions  and  Canada  thistles  in  the  wheat. 
Furthermore,  some  crops  can  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  much  easier  than  others.  Note  how  much 
faster  weeds  multiply  when  sown  crops  are  grown, 
as  rye,  oats  or  wheat,  than  when  crops  that  are 
inter- tilled  are  grown,  as  corn  and  potatoes.  In 
this  country,  weeds  cause  the  greatest  loss  in  the 
grain  fields  of  the  West,  where  continuous  cropping, 
with  or  without  summer  fallow,  is  practised. 
Wherever  the  single-crop  system  is  dominant,  weeds 
become  a  serious  nuisance. 

A  specific  instance  where  a  rotation  of  crops 
may  be  used  for  cleaning  land  of  weeds  will  call 
attention  to  the  usefulness  of  the  practice.  Wild 
carrot  and  plantain  are  very  troublesome  weeds 
in  some  localities,  especially  in  the  Northeastern 
States.  These  plants  do  not  produce  seeds  until 
mid-summer.  If  a  two-year  rotation  of  wheat  or 
rye  and  clover  is  practised  these  weeds  may  be 
almost  completely  exterminated,  for  as  soon  as 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    303 

the  clover  is  cut  they  immediately  throw  up  their 
flower  stalks.  These  may  be  mowed  a  few  weeks 
after  the  clover  is  removed,  but  a  better  way  is  to 
plow  the  clover  stubble  soon  after  the  first  cutting, 
in  preparation  for  winter  wheat  or  rye. 

The  value  of  a  rotation  of  crops  for  killing  weeds 
depends  largely  upon  the  fact  that  different  crops 
receive  different  kinds  of  tillage.  Different  tools 
are  used.  Weeds  that  escape  destruction  under  the 
system  of  tillage  given  one  crop  are  caught  by  the 
tillage  of  another.  Sown  crops,  especially  grains, 
should  be  rotated  with  tilled  crops.  Grams  cover 
the  ground  sparsely  and  there  is  no  inter- tillage, 
so  weeds  like  the  "paint-brush,"  Canada  thistle, 
dock,  and  Russian  thistle,  find  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity to  gain  a  foothold.  Some  crops  that  grow 
very  rapidly  and  quickly  shade  the  ground,  as 
potatoes,  are  not  as  apt  to  be  weedy  as  slow-growing 
and  sparse-foliage  crops.  This  should  be  re- 
membered when  planning  a  rotation. 

Insect  and  Disease  Injury  Lessened  by  Rotation.— 
Each  crop  has  its  own  peculiar  troubles.  Some 
of  these  are  fungous  diseases.  These  are  spread 
mostly  by  seed-like  bodies  called  spores;  each 
disease  has  a  different  kind  of  spore,  which  can 
cause  the  disease  only  upon  a  certain  crop.  Thus 
the  spore  of  potato  scao  can  make  scao  on  po- 
tatoes, but  no  other  disease,  either  on  potatoes  or 
any  other  plant.  The  longer  a  certain  kind  of 
crop  is  grown  upon  the  same  piece  of  land  the  more 
the  land  becomes  infected  with  parts  of  diseased 
plants  and  with  spores,  and  the  greater  is  the  like- 
lihood that  the  crop  will  be  injured  by  the  disease. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  such  common  diseases 
as  potato  scab,  and  the  club  root  of  cabbages  and 
turnips,  which  increase  very  rapidly  on  crops  grown 


304  SOILS 

for  several  years  on  the  same  soil.  It  is  less  true 
of  corn  smut,  onion  smut,  and  ergot,  which  increase 
slowly.  A  change  of  crops  deprives  these  fungous 
diseases  of  the  only  kind  of  plants  upon  which  they 
can  feed,  so  they  disappear.  Moreover,  crops  are 
less  vigorous  when  grown  continuously  upon  the 
same  land,  and  are  therefore  more  susceptible  to 
disease. 

A  number  of  important  insect  pests  of  farm 
crops  may  be  controlled  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
by  crop  rotation.  In  general,  each  crop  has  its 
own  pests,  although  insects  often  feed  on  more  than 
one  kind  of  plant.  Meadows  kept  for  a  long  time 
in  grass  are  likely  to  become  infested  with  the 
larvae  of  the  May  beetle,  and  with  wire  worms. 
A  rotation  will  prevent  this. 

Keep  the  Soil  Busy. — If  but  one  crop  is  grown, 
the  soil  is  usually  left  bare  during  part  of  the  year. 
This  is  poor  farming,  except  when  the  land  is  pur- 
posely fallowed.  No  ground  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  idle  when  it  might  be  growing  crops,  either 
to  sell  or  to  turn  under.  The  busier  a  soil  is  kept, 
provided  the  right  kind  of  crops  are  grown,  and 
provision  is. made  for  green-manuring,  the  more 
productive  it  should  be.  This  is  more  true  of 
Eastern  than  of  Western  farming.  As  land  becomes 
dearer,  it  becomes  increasingly  important  to  keep 
it  busy  all  the  season  by  means  of  a  well-considered 
rotation. 

Aside  from  maintaining  or  increasing  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  a  rotation  may  economise  labour. 
It  distributes  the  labour  throughout  the  year,  since 
crops  differ  in  the  time  when  they  are  sown  and  the 
time  it  takes  to  bring  them  to  maturity.  This  more 
continuous  employment  may  be  exceedingly  ad- 
vantageous, enabling  the  farmer  to  secure  cheaper 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    305 

and  better  help,  and  to  give  his  stock  a  greater 
variety  of  foods.  There  is,  furthermore,  a  con- 
siderable advantage  in  having  the  money  for  crops 
coming  in  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  It  is 
better  for  the  average  man  to  have  $3,000  in  in- 
stalments during  the  year  than  $4,000  in  a  lump. 
The  extent  to  which  crop  rotation  is  practised 
is  a  reliable  index  to  the  development  of  the  agri- 
culture of  a  region.  As  farming  becomes  more 
intensive,  specialised  and  refined,  rotations  in- 
crease. In  some  of  the  Western  States  a  systematic 
rotation  of  crops  is  now  almost  unknown. 

CHOOSING   CROPS   FOR   A   ROTATION 

One  could  plan  an  ideal  rotation,  so  far  as  main- 
taining the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  concerned,  which 
it  would  be  utter  folly  to  put  into  operation 
because  of  economic  conditions — the  demands 
of  the  market,  the  amount  of  help  available, 
and  similar  factors.  Few  rotations  meet  all  the 
requirements,  both  of  the  soil  and  of  farm  economy. 
It  is  usually  a  question  of  adopting  the  rotation 
that  gives  the  most  gain  and  the  least  loss;  so  the 
planning  of  a  rotation  is  largely  a  local  and  personal 
matter.  There  are,  however,  some  general  prin- 
ciples that  ought  to  be  considered. 

1.  A  rotation  should  contain  as  many  years  as 
is  practicable  of  the  crop  that  pays  the  greatest 
profit  per  acre.  The  "money  crop"  should  dic- 
tate the  rotation.  The  less  profitable  crops  should 
be  subservient  to  the  money  crop,  and  should  make 
the  soil  congenial  to  it.  If  cotton  is  the  money  crop, 
and  the  soil  is  well  adapted  for  growing  it,  build 
the  rotation  around  cotton  and  let  the  other  crops 
bolster  it  up.  If  hay  is  the  money  crop,  and  me 


306  SOILS 

soil  makes  a  strong  meadow,  keep  the  land  in  hay 
up  to  the  point  where  the  soil  would  be  injured  and 
me  yield  reduced  by  retaining  it  longer  in  sod.  If 
corn  is  the  money  crop,  grow  corn  to  the  limit  of 
the  soil's  patience  and  rotate  it  with  other  crops 
that  are  most  serviceable  in  maintaining  the  fer- 
tility of  a  first-class  corn  field.  Maximum  profit 
is  the  main  point  to  observe  in  planning  a  rotation, 
bearing  in  mind  that  no  crop  is  profitable  if 
it  is  secured  by  robbing  and  impoverishing 
the  soil. 

2.  A  rotation  should  preferably  contain  at  least 
one   crop   that   improves   the   soil.     This   "green 
crop"    may   be   grown    specifically   for    a   green- 
manure,  as  a  catch  crop  of  rye  after  corn;    or  a 
crop  which  is  harvested,  but  which  nevertheless 
improves  the  soil  by  its  growth,  as  clover  or  cow- 
peas.     The  improvement  may  be  in  texture,  by 
plowing   under   humus;   or   it   may   be   in   actual 
enrichment,  by  growing  a  leguminous  crop,  as  is 
considered  in  the  next  chapter.     If  it  is  at  all  ex- 
pedient, a  leguminous  crop  should  be  included  in 
the  rotation. 

3.  If  possible,  the  rotation  should  include  crops 
that  feed  at  different  depths,  and  that  are  dissimilar 
in  habits  of  growth.    Deep-rooting  crops  should  al- 
ternate with  shallow-rooting  ones. 

4.  If  the  money  crop  is  sown,  the  rotation  should 
include  a  "cleanser,"  a  crop  that  is  cultivated,  so 
that  the  land  may  be  kept  free  from  weeds.     In 
Europe,  roots,  as  turnips,  potatoes  and  swedes,  are 
commonly  used  as  a  cleanser;  in  this  country  corn 
and    potatoes    are    most    largely    grown    for  this 
purpose. 

Reducing  these  suggestions  to  a  simple  form,  a 
rotation  ought  to  contain  a  money  crop,  a  manurial 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    307 

crop  and  a  cleansing  crop,  and  give  as  wide  varia- 
tion in  habit  of  growth  and  food  requirements  as  is 
practicable.  This  general  rule  is  necessarily  sub- 
ject to  many  exceptions.  Sometimes  the  whole 
scheme  may  be  upset  by  economic  exigencies,  as 
the  relative  value  of  the  different  crops,  the  imme- 
diate need  of  the  farmer  of  money,  fluctuation  in 
the  price  of  live-stock  feeds,  etc. 

TYPICAL   SYSTEMS    OF   ROTATION 

The  number  of  years  that  a  rotation  may  last 
varies  from  two  to  eight  or  even  more.  "Four 
course"  rotations,  lasting  four  years  and  including 
four  crops,  are  most  common.  As  a  rule,  the  poorer 
the  land,  the  shorter  the  rotation.  Fixed  rotations 
are  not  as  common  in  the  United  States  as  in  Great 
Britain.  Many  good  farmers  habitually  change 
crops  upon  their  land  with  quite  satisfactory 
results,  without  following  any  definite  system. 
The  only  sort  of  rotation  followed  by  many  farmers 
is  to  alternate  a  grain  crop  with  a  green  crop,  and  a 
cultivated  crop  with  an  uncultivated  crop.  As 
this  embodies  two  of  the  most  important  principles 
in  crop  rotation,  one  will  not  go  far  wrong  in  follow- 
ing these  simple  rules,  even  though  specific  crops 
are  not  assigned  in  the  rotation.  Any  number 
of  exigencies  may  arise  that  may  make  it  desirable 
to  modify  or  depart  from  a  system  of  crop  rotation ; 
but  it  is  well  to  have  some  definite  system  in  mind 
and  follow  it  as  closely  as  possible. 

A  few  examples  of  common  systems  of  rotation 
in  the  United  States  will  show  now  the  principles 
outlined  above  are  applied. 

1.  Potatoes,  winter  wheat,  clover. 

This  rotation  is  frequently  used  when  the  money 


308  SOILS 

crop  is  potatoes.  Nothing  is  more  favourable  for 
potatoes  than  to  turn  under  a  clover  sod  before 
planting.  The  clover  is  sown  with  the  wheat  or  is 
seeded  in  the  growing  wheat  in  early  spring.  It  is 
the  manurial  crop  of  the  rotation  ana  potatoes  is 
the  cleansing  crop.  This  can  be  made  a  two-year 
rotation  by  plowing  under  the  clover  in  early 
spring,  in  time  to  plant  potatoes,  not  allowing  it  to 
mature  a  crop.  Rye  may  be  substituted  for  wheat 
and  sweet  potatoes  or  tomatoes  for  potatoes,  without 
lessening  the  value  of  the  rotation.  This  rotation 
may  be  secured  with  but  one  plowing.  Plow  the 
sod  in  either  fall  or  spring,  plant  the  potatoes  early 
and  use  a  harrow  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  for  wheat 
after  the  potatoes  are  harvested.  This  can  be 
made  a  four-course  rotation  by  seeding  with  clover 
and  mixed  grasses;  then  it  becomes  an  excellent 
rotation  for  the  dairyman. 

2.  Corn,  oats,  wheat,  grass  and  clover. 

This  is  a  favourite  in  the  "Corn  Belt."  It  is 
economical  of  labour,  but  is  open  to  serious  ob- 
jection in  two  respects — when  wheat  follows  oats 
it  is  not  possible  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  for  wheat 
properly;  and  two  uncultivated  crops  of  about  the 
same  feeding  habits  are  together.  It  is  customary 
to  manure  the  corn;  if  commercial  fertilisers  are 
used,  they  are  applied  to  the  wheat. 

3.  Corn,  wheat,  oats. 

Where  corn  is  the  leading  crop  this  is,  in  some 
respects,  a  better  rotation.  The  chief  criticism 
of  it  is  that  one  must  wait  until  the  corn  is  ready 
to  harvest  before  seeding  to  wheat,  which  may  be 
so  late  that  the  wheat  does  not  make  enough 
growth  to  stand  the  winter.  Wherever  it  is 
practicable  to  grow  potatoes  an  even  better  corn 
rotation  is: 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    309 

4.  Corn,  potatoes,  wheat,  clover. 

The  clover  sod  is  manured  heavily  before  being 
planted  to  corn.  This  is  an  almost  ideal  rotation, 
since  the  crops  of  cereals  alternate  with  a  root  or 
clover  crop.  Under  certain  conditions  the  crop  of 
wheat  may  be  dispensed  with,  making: 

5.  Corn,  potatoes,  clover. 

In  this  and  similar  rotations  the  second  crop  of 
clover  should  not  be  cut,  but  should  be  plowed 
under  to  enrich  the  soil  and  feed  the  corn. 

The  essential  point  in  rotations  for  stock  farming 
is  to  provide  the  maximum  amount  of  roughage 
and  succulence.  One  of  the  most  useful  rotations 
for  this  purpose  is: 

6.  Turnips,  barley,   mixed  grasses   and  clover, 


This  is  the  noted  "Norfolk  system*'  used  ex- 
tensively in  England.  If  it  is  not  desired  to  intro- 
duce grain  so  frequently,  this  can  be  made  a  six- 
course  rotation  by  cutting  the  grass  and  clover 
meadow  three  years,  thus  keeping  one-half  the  farm 
in  hay.  This  rotation  may  be  modified  in  many 
ways  to  meet  varying  conditions,  as  by  substi- 
tuting oats  for  barley,  rye  for  wheat,  mangels  or 
sugar  beets  for  turnips.  In  this  rotation  the  cereals 
are  separated  by  roots,  which  is  the  cleansing  crop, 
and  clover,  which  is  the  manurial  crop.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  perfect  rotations  in  existence. 

A  popular  dairy-farm  rotation  is: 

7.  JPotatoes,  one  year;  corn,  two  years;  grass  and 
clover,  three  years. 

The  corn  may  be  put  into  the  silo  the  second 
year.  The  grass  and  clover  mixture  is  sown  when 
the  corn  is  cultivated  last.  If  desirable,  one  year 
of  corn  or  one  of  meadow  may  be  omitted.  The 
main  object  in  a  dairy  rotation  is  to  secure  a 


310  SOILS 

continuous  supply  of  food.  The  necessity  for  ac- 
complishing this  may  make  it  necessary  to  adopt 
rotations  that  are  not  ideal,  so  far  as  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  the  farm  soil  is  concerned.  The 
abundance  of  manure  may  offset  this  disadvantage. 
When  either  the  small  grains  or  hay  are  me 
specialties  a  common  rotation  is : 

8.  Wheat  or  rye;    clover,  or  clover  and  mixed 
grasses,  three  to  six  years. 

In  the  "Cotton  Belt"  one  of  the  most  successful 
rotations  is: 

9.  Cotton,  rye  or  clover,  corn. 

Catch  crops  of  cowpeas  are  used  between  these 
crops.  In  addition  to  main-crop  rotation,  catch 
crops  and  cover  crops  are  used  in  diverse  ways. 

The  foregoing  are  but  a  few  of  many  rotations 
in  common  use  on  American  farms.  In  the  Ap- 
pendix is  a  list  of  the  rotations  commonly  practised 
or  recommended  in  each  of  the  states.  These  lists 
have  been  prepared  by  authorities  on  the  subject 
and  are  a  record  of  the  best  current  practice^^ 
crop  rotation. 

SINGLE-CROP   FARMING 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  it  will  never  pay  to 
grow  a  crop  continuously  on  the  same  land.  Often 
this  is  the  only  feasible  course — as  in  some  Western 
grain  farming;  and  again  it  may  be  best  for  certain 
crops,  as  onions  and  tobacco.  A  summer  fallow 
may  be  introduced  instead  of  another  crop.  There 
are  numerous  instances  of  wheat  and  corn  being 
grown  continuously,  with  little  diminution  of  sou 
Fertility.  In  the  noted  experiments  of  Laws  and 
Gilbert,  in  England,  wheat  has  been  grown  con- 
tinuously on  the  same  land  for  over  sixty  years, 


yet  the  yields  for  recent  years  are  much  above  the 
average.  These  are  scattered  exceptions.  The 
evidence  is  overwhelming  that,  in  general,  the 
single-crop  system,  if  continued  very  long,  means 
ruin. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  "succession  crop- 
ing,"  as  practised  by  market  gardeners  especially. 
\y  setting  out  plants  from  hotbeds,  by  inter- 
planting  and  by  very  high  culture,  they  are  able  to 
take  three  or  four  different  crops  from  the  same 
land  in  a  single  season.  The  value  of  the  crops 
removed  in  one  year  by  skilled  market  gardeners 
often  reaches  astonishing  figures.  One  Massa- 
chusetts gardener  is  reported  to  have  secured  a  net 
profit  of  $2,000  an  acre,  in  1906.  The  chief  aim 
of  the  market  gardener  is  to  keep  the  land  busy 
all  the  time.  He  depends  little  upon  the  natural 
fertility  of  the  soil,  but  mostly  upon  the  very 
large  amounts  of  manures  and  fertilisers  that 
he  uses,  so  his  rotation  is  chosen  for  its 
economic  advantages,  rather  than  for  the  main- 
tenance of  fertility. 

SELLING   FERTILITY 

The  maintenance  of  fertility  is  a  larger  and 
broader  problem  than  how  to  utilise  home  re- 
sources to  advantage,  and  how  to  buy  fertilisers 
economically.  The  farmer  should  ask  himself, 
"How  mucn  fertility  am  I  selling  from  my  farm 
each  year  ?"  The  soil  is  a  great  bin  of  plant  food 
from  which  we  draw  a  small  supply  each  year. 
It  is  not  like  a  bin  of  wheat — to  be  drawn  on  each 
year  until  exhausted,  because  it  is  constantly  re- 
ceiving new  food  from  the  decay  of  plants,  weather- 
ing of  stones  and  other  sources.  But  cropping 


312  SOILS 

does  impoverish  farm  soils  of  available  plant  food, 
reducing  their  value  for  cropping,  temporarily 
at  least.  This  plant  food  is  being  shipped  off  in 
butter,  eggs,  hay,  corn,  apples,  wheat,  cotton, 
potatoes,  and  in  every  other  crop  that  goes  to 
market.  The  fertility  that  goes  off  in  crops  never 
returns  to  that  land.  But  some  crops,  or  part  of 
them,  stay  on  the  farm.  These  are  the  crops  that 
are  fed  to  stock  and  the  manure  returned  to  the 
land. 

A  Bank  Account  with  the  Soil. — In  reality, 
when  we  sell  crops  we  are  selling  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  not  only  the  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  the  crops  have  used,  but  also  a  certain 
amount  of  good  texture  or  "condition"  which  is 
lost  by  the  growth  of  the  crop.  A  farmer  should 
know  the  relation  between  the  price  received  for 
his  crop  and  the  amount  of  plant  food  contained 
in  it. 

The  amount  of  fertility  lost  to  the  farm  by  the 
sale  of  different  crops  varies  greatly.  The  loss  in 
grass  and  cereal  crops  is  much  greater  than  in 
vegetable  and  fruit  crops.  If  a  ton  of  wheat,  which 
contains  38  Ibs.  of  nitrogen,  19  Ibs.  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  13  Ibs.  of  potash,  sells  for  60  cents  a  bushel, 
the  nitrogen  in  it  sells  for  41  cents  a  lb.,  and  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  for  14  cents  a  lb.  If 
a  ton  of  milk,  which  contains  12  Ibs,  of  nitrogen, 
4|  Ibs.  of  potash  and  3^  Ibs.  of  phosphoric 
acid,  is  sold  for  $30,  the  nitrogen  in  it  brings 
$2  per  lb.,  and  the  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  about  70  cents  per  lb.  If,  however, 
cream  or  butter  is  sold  and  the  skim  milk 
fed  to  hogs,  calves  or  chickens,  most  of  the 
plant  food  is  recovered  in  the  manure  of  these 
animals. 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    313 

Hay  is  one  of  the  most  exhausting  crops.  If  it 
is  sold,  practically  the  entire  crop  leaves  the  farm, 
carrying  from  it  large  quantities  of  plant  food, 
which  is  sold  at  a  very  low  price  per  pound.  When 
a  crop  that  contains  a  large  amount  of  plant  food, 
as  hay,  sells  for  a  low  price,  it  is  usually  best  to  sell 
it  not  as  hay,  but  as  a  manufactured  product — as 
milk  or  butter,  for  example.  The  farmer  ought 
to  think  of  the  several  thousand  pounds  each 
of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  that  his 
soil  probably  contains,  as  so  much  capital  stock. 
He  draws  a  cheque  upon  his  soil  bank  every  time  he 
removes  a  crop  from  it.  He  should  see  to  it  that 
every  pound  of  plant  food  that  leaves  the  farm  as 
raw  material — like  grain,  hay,  potatoes,  or  as 
manufactured  products — as  milk,  butter,  beef, 
pork,  eggs,  wool,  brings  him  a  profitable 
income. 

On  investigation  the  farmer  may  find  that  he  is 
selling  plant  food  at  a  ruinous  price.  Then  there 
are  two  alternatives:  to  grow  other  crops  which 
contain  less  fertility  and  sell  higher  per  pound  of 
plant  food  contained;  or  to  sell  the  crops  as 
manufactured  rather  than  as  raw  material.  This 
enforces  the  necessity  of  introducing  stock  of  some 
kind  to  manufacture  the  crop  into  products  like 
butter,  eggs,  or  pork,  which,  when  sold,  do 
not  diminish  the  farm  fertility  bank  account 
to  any  appreciable  extent.  Then  begins  di- 
versified farming,  of  which  stock  husbandry  is 
the  backbone. 

The  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station^ 
has  published  the  results  of  experiments  on  the 
loss  of  fertility  under  different  systems  of  farming. 
The  gain  of  nitrogen  from  growing  clover  is 
considered  in  the  following  figures: 


314 


SOILS 


APPROXIMATE  LOSS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  IN  ONE  YEAR  FROM 

160  ACRES  OF  LAND  UNDER  DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS 

OF  FARMING 


System  of  Farming 

Phosphoric  Acid 
Pounds 

Potash 
Pounds 

Nitrogen 
Pounds 

All  grain  

2,460 

4,020 

5,600 

Mixed  grain  and  general 
Mixed  potato  and  general 
Stock  

1,003 
991 
35 

1,047 
2,435 
59 

2,594 
2,363 
898 

Dairy  

76 

85 

809 

Commenting  on  these  results  the  report  says, 
"With  stock  farming,  when  all  the  crops  are  fed  to 
the  stock  on  the  farm  and  a  small  amount  of  milled 
products  is  purchased,  there  is  practically  no  loss 
of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  except  in  handling 
the  manure.  When  the  manure  is  well  cared  for 
the  loss  of  these  plant  foods  is  less  than  is  stated. 
When  all  the  skim  milk  is  fed  on  the  farm  and  a 
part  of  the  grain  exchanged  for  more  concentrated 
mill  products,  there  is  no  loss  but  a  constant  gain 
of  fertility." 

These  figures  are,  of  course,  only  approximate 
and  subject  to  much  variation;  but  they  show 
where  the  heaviest  drafts  fall  on  the  soil  under 
different  systems  of  farming. 

The  type  of  farming  followed,  whether  stock, 
fruit,  grain,  hay  or  otherwise,  is  usually  determined 
by  economic  conditions  that  are  of  far  greater  im- 
portance than  the  question  of  maintaining  soil 
fertility.  A  farmer  grows  the  crop  or  rears  the 
stock  that  he  thinks  will  be  most  profitable  in  his 
situation  as  regards  soil,  climate,  market  and  sim- 
ilar factors.  He  is  more  concerned  about  growing 
crops  that  pay  this  year  and  next,  than  about  hand- 
ing down  to  his  son  a  farm  on  which  the  soil  has  not 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    315 

been  seriously  impaired  in  fertility.  But  the  larger 
consideration  of  maintaining  soil  fertility  for  other 
generations  surely  deserves  serious  thought  from  the 
farmer  of  to-day.  In  any  case  it  is  likely  that  he 
will  have  the  subject  brought  to  his  attention  by 
self  interest.  The  effects  of  pursuing  a  system  of 
farming  that  continually  takes  from  the  land  and 
returns  nothing  or  little  to  it  may  be  seen  within 
a  generation,  or  even  within  a  decade.  Each  year 
thousands'  of  American  farmers  are  radically 
modifying  their  systems  of  husbandry  for  the  pur- 
pose of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  their  farms. 
Sometimes  this  must  be  done,  apparently,  at  the 
expense  of  self  interest,  at  least  for  a  few  years. 
Some  of  the  crops  that  have  paid  best  either  must 
not  be  grown  at  all  or  grown  less  frequently.  But 
a  series  of  years  may  tell  another  story. 

DIVERSIFIED    FARMING 

The  number  and  kinds  of  crops  grown  are  largely 
determined  by  the  distance  to  the  market.  Eastern 
farmers,  who  are  close  to  large  markets,  grow  a 
greater  variety  of  crops  than  Western  farmers.  Cot- 
ton in  the  South,  corn  in  the  Central  States  and 
small  grains  in  the  West  are  the  most  conspicuous 
examples  of  single-crop  farming  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  many  small  single-crop  areas,  as 
Aroostook  County,  Maine,  which  is  devoted  largely 
to  the  culture  of  potatoes.  Single-crop  farming 
does  not  necessarily  mean  that  but  one  crop  is 
grown;  it  may  mean  that  one  main  crop  is  grown 
with  a  few  secondary  crops.  Small  grain  farming, 
even  though  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  are  grown, 
would  be  considered,  in  its  effect  on  soil  fertility,  as 
single-crop  farming. 


316  SOILS 

The  chief  disadvantages  of  a  too  rigid  adherence 
to  single-crop  farming  are  the  unequal  distribution 
through  the  year  of  labour  and  of  returns,  and  the 
certain  exhaustion  of  the  soil  sooner  or  later,  by 
almost  continuous  cropping  with  one  plant  or  close- 
ly related  plants.  Single-crop  farming,  if  persisted 
in,  means  ruin.  Diversified  farming  is  one  of  the 
strongest  props  of  soil  fertility.  Undoubtedly  the 
farming  in  some  sections  of  the  country,  especially 
the  far  West,  must  be  single-crop,  or  practically  so, 
in  order  to  be  profitable,  for  the  farmer  must  grow 
what  he  can  sell  at  a  profit.  But  other  crops 
should  be  introduced  wnenever  possible.  It  is 
very  hard  to  persuade  the  farmer  who  has  been 
growing  corn,  or  wheat,  or  cotton,  and  little  else,  that 
it  will  be  for  his  interest  to  diversify  his  farming. 
These  have  been  his  money-making  crops.  Yet 
the  time  always  comes  when  he  is  forced,  by  the 
lessening  fertility  of  his  soil,  to  introduce  "green 
crops,"  to  feed  more  stock,  and  to  rest  his  over- 
worked land. 

KEEPING   LIVE-STOCK  TO    MAINTAIN    FERTILITY 

Theoretically,  the  most  economical  way  of 
maintaining  tne  fertility  of  the  soil  is  by  growing 
crops  to  feed  live-stock  and  returning  their  excre- 
tions to  the  soil;  practically,  this  is  the  most  en- 
during method.  If  all  the  conditions  for  caring 
for  and  applying  manures  were  perfect,  from  70  to 
90  per  cent,  of  the  plant  food  in  what  the  animals 
eat  would  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  manure  and 
urine.  Practically  a  much  smaller  per  cent,  than 
this  is  recovered,  for  there  is  always  loss  in  storing 
and  handling  manure.  But  even  granting  that  the 
percentage  of  plant  food  that  can  be  recovered  in 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    317 

manure  is  considerably  less  than  is  commonly 
stated,  the  keeping  of  live-stock  remains  one  of  the 
most  economical  methods  of  maintaining  soil  fertil- 
ity under  certain  conditions.  These  are  largely  eco- 
nomic ;  as  to  whether  the  animals  or  their  products 
will  find  a  ready  market  at  profitable  prices. 

The  stock-feeding  solution  of  the  problem  of 
maintaining  soil  fertility  is  meeting  with  more  and 
more  favour  in  every  part  of  the  country.  The 
farmers  of  the  West,  who  have  seen  their  crops 
gradually  dwindle  under  single- crop  farming,  are 
awakening  to  the  necessity  for  a  more  diversified 
husbandry,  and  especially  stock  husbandry.  The 
farmers  of  the  South  are  begining  to  realise  that  it 
will  pay  to  split  the  time-honoured  rotation  of  corn 
and  cotton  with  a  green  crop,  which  may  be  fed  to 
stock  and  the  manure  used  to  bind  together  the 
clay  soils  which  wash  so  badly.  One-third  of  the 
land  now  in  cotton  could  be  made  to  produce  as 
much  cotton  as  at  present,  if  the  other  two-thirds 
were  used  for  forage  crops  for  stock.  The  South 
has  the  great  advantage  of  an  almost  continuous 
grazing  season.  In  every  branch  of  crop  produc- 
tion there  is  a  renewed  appreciation  of  the  oldest 
and  most  reliable  three-course  rotations — the 
land  produces  crops,  the  crops  pass  through  farm 
animals,  the  manure  is  returned  to  the  land.  Even, 
the  great  practical  value  of  green-manuring,  which 
has  been  demonstrated  so  conclusively  the  past  few 
years,  has  not  diminished  the  demand  for  animal 
manures;  and  green-manuring  is  usually  resorted 
to  only  when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  animal  manure 
cannot  be  had. 

This  growing  appreciation  of  animal  manures 
and  of  stock  husbandry  as  a  means  of  maintaining 
fertility  is  not  misplaced.  There  are  few  parts  of 


318  SOILS 

the  country  where  live-stock  husbandry,  in  at  least 
one  or  more  of  its  many  branches,  is  not  prac- 
ticable. There  is  in  progress  an  evolution  toward 
diversified  farming,  which  is  based  very  largely 
upon  the  advantages  of  combining  more  or  less 
stock  husbandry  with  all  other  types  of  farming. 
Undoubtedly  there  are  conditions  when  the  keeping 
of  stock  is  impracticable,  or  when  the  same  results 
may  be  secured  more  advantageously  by  the  use 
of  green-manures,  by  buying  animal  manure  from 
others,  or  by  using  commercial  fertilisers.  But 
these  cases  are  few  as  compared  with  the  great 
majority  of  American  farms  upon  which  stock 
husbandry,  in  some  form,  ought  to  be  one  of  the 
chief  means  of  maintaining  fertility.  Remember 
the  Flemish  proverb:  "No  grass,  no  cattle;  no 
cattle,  no  manure;  no  manure,  no  crops." 

THE    EXCRETORY   THEORY   OF    SOIL    FERTILITY 

There  has  been  advocated  during  the  last  two  or 
three  years  a  new  theory  of  soil  fertility,  especially 
as  it  relates  to  the  rotation  of  crops.  In  the  fore- 
going pages  are  presented  the  most  commonly 
accepted  beliefs  and  practices  concerning  soil  fer- 
tility; what  it  is  and  how  it  may  be  increased  and 
maintained  to  best  advantage.  Now  comes  a 
radically  different  interpretation  of  the  nature  of  the 
problem  from  a  few  scientists,  whose  conclusions 
nave  been  reached  after  extended  study  and 
are  therefore  entitled  to  a  very  careful  hearing. 

Do  Plants  Excrete? — The  most  important  point 
in  the  new  theory  of  soil  fertility  is  the  positive 
statement  that  the  roots  of  plants  do  excrete  sub- 
stances that  correspond  in  function  to  the  excretions 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    319 

of  animals.  This  is  used  to  explain  the  value 
of  a  rotation  of  crops.  We  have  been  accustomed 
to  believe  that  the  reason  why  a  rotation  of  crops 
results  in  increased  yields  is  because  the  different 
feeding  habits  of  the  crops  bring  a  larger  area  of 
soil  under  tribute,  and  equalise  the  demand  upon 
it;  because  it  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil;  be- 
cause it  alleviates  weediness,  disease  and  other 
difficulties.  The  new  explanation  is  that  the  bene- 
fit of  rotating  crops  is  not  due  so  much  to  those 
factors — although  their  importance  is  not  denied— 
as  to  the  fact  that  a  rotation  puts  a  new  kind  of 
plant  into  a  soil  that  has  become  clogged  with  the 
excretions  of  the  old  crop  and  which  has  therefore 
become  so  "unsanitary"  that  the  old  plants  can- 
not grow  well.  The  new  plant  is  not  injured  by 
the  excretions  of  its  predecessor  and  so  makes  a 
vigorous  growth. 

The  second  radical  change  of  view  that  the  new 
theory  introduces  is  in  regard  to  the  action  of 
manures  and  fertilisers.  We  have  been  believing 
that  the  value  of  supplying  manures  and  fertilisers 
to  the  soil  is  that  they  actually  enrich  it  with  the 
plant  food  they  contain  and  that  this  plant  food 
that  we  apply  is  actually  needed  by  the  crop  and 
is  used  by  it.  The  new  conception  is  that  manures 
and  fertilisers  are  valuable  chiefly  because  they 
aid  in  renovating  the  soil,  or  in  cleansing  it  of  the 
plant  excretions,  or. "toxic"  matter,  although  they 
do  supply  plant  food.  In  other  words,  fertilisers 
are  chiefly  beneficial  not  because  they  enrich  soil  but 
because  they  purify  it.  They  act  not  upon  the  plants 
but  upon  the  soil;  they  purify  the  soil  from  the 
excreta  of  the  crop  that  nas  oeen  grown  and  so 
affect  the  growth  of  the  crop  that  is  to  be  grown. 

No  soil  physicist  would  champion  a  theory  that 


320  SOILS 

so  completely  controverts  our  generally  accepted 
beliefs  unless  there  were  abundant  and  weighty 
evidence  to  prove  that  it  is  at  least  plausible.  It 
will  be  impossible  to  give  here  more  than  a  bare 
summary  of  the  abundant  evidence  submitted  in 
support  of  the  new  theory.  Briefly  stated  the  main 
lines  of  argument  are: 

1.  Practically  all  soils,  including  those  that  now 
produce  poor  crops  or  are  said  to  be  worn  out  and 
supposed  to  be  exhausted  of  available  plant  food, 
are  really  rich  in  available  plant  food. 

2.  The  cause  of  their  unproductiveness,  then,  is 
the  condition  of  the  soil,  not  its  chemical  content. 
The  problem  of  soil  fertility  is  not  concerned  so 
much  with  the  amount  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  as 
with  the  condition  of  the  soil. 

3.  Plants    excrete    from    their    roots    poisonous 
substances  which  are  to  the  plants  what  manure 
is  to  animals — the  wastes.     If  the  same  kind  of 
plant  is  grown  continuously  on  the  same  land,  the 
soil  becomes  so  clogged  with  this  plant  manure  that 
this  kind  of  plant  will  no  longer  thrive  in  it,  but 
other  kinds  of  plants  will. 

4.  A  water-culture  of  an  unproductive  soil — an 
exact  duplication  of  the  soil  water  in  that  soil 
upon    which    plants    feed — will   not  grow   plants 
well  until  the  impurities  in  it  have  been   removed 
with    carbon    black;     after    this    is    done    plants 
grow  very  vigorously  in  it.     The  chemical  com- 
position of  the  water-culture  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  soil  water  of  the  unproductive  soil  in  the  field. 

5.  Humus    is    Nature's    carbon    black.     If    an 
abundance  of  humus  is  present  in  the  soil  it  absorbs 
these  plant  excrements  and  the  soil  is  kept  in  a 
sanitary  condition. 

6.  Commercial  fertilisers  are  valuable  not  merely 


90.    HAY  THAT  WILL  SOON  BE  BALED  AND  SHIPPED  TO  THE  CITY 

The  plant  food  in  the  hay  is  then  lost  to  the  farm.     But  if  the  hay  were  fed  to  cattle, 

most  of  the  plant  food  in  it  is  recovered  in  the  manure.     In  selling 

crops  we  sell  the  fertility  of  the  land 


91.    CLOVER  FOLLOWING  WHEAT— ONE  OF  THE  COMMONEST 
ROTATIONS  IN  THIS  COUNTRY 

A  rotation  of  croos  is  necessary  to  the  highest  success  in  most  types  of  farming.     If 
possible  include  a*  legume,  as  clover,  in  every  rotation 


MAINTAINING  SOIL  FERTILITY    321 

for  the  plant  food  they  contain,  but  also  for  their 
cleansing  action  upon  the  soil.  Manures  benefit 
the  soil  chiefly  because  the  humus  in  them  cleanses 
the  soil. 

7.  The  practical  application  is  to  rotate  crops,  and 
to  use  farm  manures  and  green  manures,  which 
supply  the  humus  that  cleanses  the  soil  of  plant 
excretions.  In  the  wild  the  soil  cleanses  itself  by 
the  constant  addition  of  decaying  plants. 

The  clash  between  the  current  belief  and  the  new 
belief  is  mainly  this :  The  prevailing  belief  explains 
the  unproductiveness  of  soils  that  the  chemist  finds 
to  be  very  rich  in  plant  food  by  saying  that  the  soil 
is  in  poor  texture  and  hence  has  not  the  conditions 
of  warmth,  aeration  and  moisture  that  are  essential 
to  plant  growth.  The  new  conception  explains 
the  same  situation  by  saying  that  the  worn-out  soil 
has  become  unsanitary  because  of  an  accumulation 
of  excretions  from  the  roots  of  plants,  not  enough 
humus  being  present  to  absorb  them. 

These  two  interpretations  of  the  cause  of  infer- 
tility are  radically  different,  but  there  is  no  dispute 
about  the  remedies.  In  either  case  they  are  good 
tillage,  a  rotation  of  crops  and  the  addition  of  humus 
to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  farm  manures  and  green 
manures.  In  either  case  these  remain  the  most 
valuable  means  of  maintaining  the  fertility  of 
farm  soils.  So  the  farmer  will  continue  to  rotate 
crops,  and  to  use  barn  and  green  manures,  unmind- 
ful of  the  controversy  that  is  being  waged  in  the 
scientific  world  concerning  the  exact  way  in  which 
they  benefit  the  soil. 


CHAPTER  XII 

GREEN   MANURING   AND   WORN-OUT   SOILS 

ONE  of  the  most  significant  phrases  that  has 
recently  come  into  our  agricultural  vocab- 
ulary is  "Keep  the  soil  m  good  texture." 
The  older  farmers  of  to-day  heard  nothing  about 
this  in  their  early  years,  although  many  of  them 
were  skilful  in  securing  the  results  now  expressed 
by  these  words.  Like  many  another  idea  in 
agriculture,  good  texture  has  been  talked  about 
and  exploited  to  a  degree  that  is  not,  perhaps,  com- 
mensurate with  its  real  importance  in  the  successful 
tilling  of  the  soil.  Good  texture,  like  the  liming 
of  soils,  is  but  one  of  many  important  factors 
that  enter  into  that  most  complex  problem  of 
modern  agriculture — how  to  maintain  the  fertility 
of  the  soil.  However,  it  is  a  subject  that  is  not 
generally  understood  by  those  who  till  the  soil, 
and  one  that  cannot  be  overlooked  or  disregarded 
without  loss.  There  are  thousands  of  acres  of 
land  that  produce  indifferent  or  unprofitable  crops 
for  no  other  reason  than  that  the  soil  is  poor  in 
texture(  .p  / 

WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  "GOOD  TEXTURE" 

Land  is  in  good  heart  or  good  texture  when  it 
is  in  the  right  physical  condition  for  growing  crops. 
This  means  that  it  possesses  the  qualities  expressed 
by  such  common  farm  words  as  mellow,  loose, 
friable,  porous,  easy  to  work;  and  is  not  hard, 

322 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    323 

cloddy,  lumpy,  leachy.  It  is  not  concerned  with 
the  mere  richness  of  the  soil  in  plant  food,  but  it  is 
concerned  with  the  way  in  which  that  plant  food 
is  served  to  the  growing  crops.  It  does  not  mean 
the  amount  of  water  that  a  soil  contains,  but  it 
does  mean  the  facility  with  which  that  water  is 
presented  to  the  crop.  In  other  words,  good  tex- 
ture means  that  the  machinery  of  the  soil  is  well 
oiled  and  in  running  order;  not  that  there  is  plenty 
of  raw  material — plant  food — in  it,  out  of  which 
a  profitable  crop  can  be  manufactured.  In  the 
language  of  the  farm,  the  texture  of  the  soil  is  the 
way  it  "works  up."  Everybody  who  has  handled 
soil  knows  exactly  what  is  meant  by  that. 

HOW  NATURE  SECURES  GOOD  TEXTURE 

There  are  several  ways  of  putting  in  good  texture 
a  soil  that  has  become  cloddy,  stiff,  and  in  "bad 
heart."  The  most  practicable  way,  usually,  is 
Nature's  way — to  keep  it  filled  with  numus. 

"Humus"  is  another  word  that  is  fast  becoming 
established  in  the  vocabulary  and  in  the  practice 
of  the  successful  farmer  of  to-day.  "Humus," 
"green  manure,"  and  "good  texture"  express  a 
trinity  of  agricultural  ioieas  that  are  improving 
our  farming  more  than  anything  else  except,  pos- 
sibly, plant  breeding. 

Although  the  term  humus  is  now  in  common 
use,  there  is  much  haziness  about  the  conception 
that  underlies  it.  The  best  illustration  of  the  use 
of  humus  is  found  in  Nature's  farming.  Here  is 
a  piece  of  virgin  soil.  For  centuries  it  has  nur- 
tured herbs,  grasses,  vines,  shrubs,  trees.  In 
numberless  cycles  plants  have  been  born  upon,  it, 
have  grown  to  maturity,  reproduced  their  kind, 


324  SOILS 

died,  decayed,  and  have  returned  to  the  soil. 
From  their  substance  have  sprung  other  plants. 
Each  year  the  soil  becomes  richer  from  the  return 
of  its  children  and  is  able  to  nourish  lustier  off- 
spring. It  may  thus  come  to  have  upon  it  great 
trees,  standing  so  high  and  so  thick  that  we  won- 
der how  such  a  thin,  rocky  soil  can  support  them. 

Then  a  farmer  clears  the  land,  uproots  me  stumps, 
subdues  the  herbage,  and  plants  corn.  For  a  few 
years,  perhaps  for  many  years,  the  crops  are  large; 
but  after  a  while  they  begin  to  dwindle.  The 
farmer  then  seeks  to  maintain  his  yields  by  ap- 
plications of  fertilisers.  These  help  some,  but 
do  not  seem  to  restore  the  land  to  its  early  pro- 
ductive power.  The  farmer  begins  to  wonder 
where  the  trouble  lies.  How  can  his  pygmy  crops 
of  grain  exhaust  the  soil  more  than  the  great  forest 
crop  of  Nature's  farming  ?  He  takes  a  sample  of  his 
soil  to  be  analysed.  The  chemist  tells  him  that 
the  soil  contains  enough  of  all  the  necessary  plant 
foods  to  grow  seventy-five  bushels  of  corn  per  acre 
for  several  hundred  years.  Yet  the  yield  has 
fallen  from  sixty  to  forty  bushels  per  acre,  and 
applications  of  fertilisers,  though  they  increase  the 
yield  considerably,  do  not  secure  the  results  of  fifty 
years  ago.  Why  is  this  ? 

A  Farmer's  Logic. — The  farmer,  and  I  assure 
the  reader  that  he  is  not  hypothetical,  then  began 
to  notice  more  carefully  the  growth  of  crops  on 
different  parts  of  his  farm.  One  season  he  noticed 
a  bigger  growth  of  corn  in  a  certain  spot.  He 
remembered  that  the  thresher  was  set  up  on  this 
spot  two  years  before  and  a  considerable  amount 
of  fine  straw  and  chaff  had  remained  on  the  ground 
and  had  been  plowed  under.  He  recalled  that 
last  spring  the  plow  had  pulled  easier  and  the  soil 


LOSS  OF  FERTILITY  BY  EROSION 


The  finest  and  richest  soil  from  this  field  of  winter  wheat  is  being  washed  into  the 

creek.     Such  land  ought  to  he  in  sod  or,  at  least,  the  drills 

should  run  crosswise  of  the  slope 


93.     A  GEORGIA  FIELD  THAT  ONCE  PRODUCED  A  BALE  OF  COTTON 
PER  ACRE,   NOW   RUINED   BEYOND  REDEMPTION 
BY   GULLYING 

Shallow  plowing,  the  lack  of  humus,  and  carelessness  about  "breaks" 
brought  this  about 


94.     RICHNESS  RUNNING  OFF  IN  THE  BOTTOM  OF  THE  DEEP  FURROW 
MADE  BY  RIDGING  THIS  COTTON 
Some  day  this  land  will  he  called  "worn  out" 


95.     A  "BREAK"  OF  CORN  STALKS  USED  TO  CHECK  GULLYING 

Note  that  this  one  collected  much  soil  until  a  new  Rully  formed  over  it.     Hay,  cotton 

stems,  brush,  weeds,  etc.,  are  also  used.     Many  Southern  hill  farms 

need  attention  in  this  matter  all  the  year 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    325 

had  worked  up  mellower  on  this  spot.  This  gave 
him  an  idea.  The  chemist  had  also  told  him  that 
he  could  buy  of  a  fertiliser  dealer  all  the  plant  food 
that  there  is  in  a  ton  of  good  cow  manure  for  two 
dollars,  yet  this  farmer  knew  from  experience  that 
he  could  get  better  results  on  his  land  from  one  ton 
of  manure  than  from  five  dollars'  worth  of  any 
commercial  fertiliser  he  had  ever  bought.  Per- 
haps the  manure  had  other  values  besides  its  plant 
food  value. 

He  went  to  the  cow  pasture  and  kicked  over  a 
heap  of  dry  cow  dung  that  had  lain  there  many 
months.  Evidently  the  rains  must  have  washed 
out  practically  all  its  plant  food.  The  substance 
that  remains  is  mostly  indigestible  vegetable  mat- 
ter that  the  cow  has  eaten;  it  is  fibrous,  holds 
water  like  a  sponge,  and  is  easily  incorporated  with 
the  soil.  He  knows  that  it  is  good  for  plants, 
though  it  contains  little  or  no  plant  food. 

Following  this  clue,  the  farmer  went  to  his  wood- 
land. Beneath  the  living  plants  about  him  are 
the  dead  and  decaying  trees,  underbrush,  herbage, 
leaves.  He  can  barely  trace  upon  the  ground  the 
outline  of  a  one-time  forest  monarch  that  is  slowly 
passing  into  mould,  and  already  nourishes  a  thrifty 
colony  of  mosses  and  ferns.  Beneath  the  carpet- 
ing leaves  is  the  rich,  black,  forest  mould.  It  is 
made  of  the  leaves,  branches  and  trunks  of  a  genera- 
tion ago.  It  holds  water  like  a  sponge.  Upon  it 
Nature  is  growing  a  crop  that  must  be  many 
times  more  exhaustive  of  plant  food  than  any  crop 
of  maize. 

The  farmer  came  to  this  conclusion:  "It  is 
this  decaying  vegetation  that  my  soil  needs.  My 
farm  has  been  cropped  with  corn,  oats  and  pota- 
toes for  fifty  years.  No  vegetation  has  been 


326  SOILS 

returned  to  it  except  the  stubble  and  roots  of  the 
grain,  the  roots  of  the  potatoes  and  a  few 
weeds.  For  fifty  years  my  father  and  I  have  been 
exhausting  the  soil  of  its  vegetable  matter.  No 
wonder  the  soil  gets  cloddier  and  harder  to  work 
every  year;  it  needs  more  of  this  material  to  sepa- 
rate me  particles  and  make  it  looser  and  more 
fibrous.  I  know  why  it  suffers  more  from  drought 
than  it  used  to — it  has  not  enough  of  the  spongy 
material  in  it  to  hold  the  moisture.  I  am  going 
to  try  growing  some  crop  to  plow  under  and  decay 
in  the  soil.  I  believe  it  is  the  lack  of  this  material 
more  than  the  lack  of  plant  food  that  reduces  my 
yields." 

The  farmer  who  made  these  remarks  to  me, 
about  eight  years  ago,  has  since  then  more  than  veri- 
fied the  accuracy  of  his  conclusion.  Each  year 
he  now  devotes  a  portion  of  his  farm  to  clover, 
vetch,  field  peas,  rye,  rape,  or  some  other  crop  that 
fits  into  the  rotation,  and  plows  under  the  herbage. 
His  soil  is  growing  richer  and  his  fertiliser  bill  has 
been  cut  in  two.  Soil  that  formerly  was  lumpy, 
"run  together,"  and  baked  is  becoming  mellow 
and  in  good  heart;  its  texture  has  been  improved 
by  the  addition  of  humus. 

This  farmer  is  only  one  of  thousands  who  now 
make  use  of  "green  manure,"  as  such  a  crop 
is  called,  for  the  improvement  of  their  lands.  I 
once  heard  a  speaker  at  a  Farmers'  Institute 
say:  "The  key  to  maintaining  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  is  to  have  plants  decaying  in  it  all 
the  time,  as  is  the  case  in  uncleared  land." 
This  statement  of  the  problem  is  forceful  and 
practical.  He  did  not  mean,  of  course,  that 
numus  alone  can  maintain  fertility.  No  amount 
of  green-manuring  can  enrich  a  soil  in  the 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS  327 

mineral  plant  foods — potash  and  phosphoric 
acid — and  there  are  many  soils  that  are  ex- 
hausted of  these.  Fertilisers  and  manures  must 
be  used  to  make  good  this  loss.  But  he  did 
mean  that  a  majority  of  the  soils  that  now  pro- 
duce unsatisfactory  crops,  and  are  said  to  be 
"worn  out,"  need  the  humus  that  comes  from 
decaying  plants  more  than  mere  additions  of  plant 
food.  This  practice  is  becoming  a  noteworthy 
feature  of  American  farming. 

HOW    HUMUS   BENEFITS   THE   SOIL 

Humus  benefits  the  soil  in  several  ways.  Its 
greatest  benefit  is  in  improving  texture.  Mix  a 
little  leaf  mould,  gathered  from  the  woods,  with 
a  pailful  of  light,  sandy  soil ;  it  gives  the  soil  more 
"body,"  and  makes  it  less  leachy.  Add  leaf 
mould  to  a  pailful  of  stiff  clay  soil  that  clods, 
bakes  and  cracks  in  the  field;  the  clay  be- 
comes more  porous  and  works  up  better.  Wet  it 
and  it  does  not  puddle.  These  same  results  farm- 
ers secure,  on  a  commercial  scale,  in  their  fields. 

The  relation  of  good  texture  to  the  fertility  of 
cloddy  land  lies  in  the  uselessness  of  the  clods. 
The  root  hairs  of  plants  feed  on  the  outside  of  the 
smallest  particles  of  soil.  If,  therefore,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  soil  is  lumpy  and  in  bad  heart 
the  feeding  area  or  "pasturage"  is  reduced  that 
much.  This  is  why  we  hear  about  plant  food 
being  "locked  up"  in  lumps — it  is  where  the 
plants  cannot  get  to  it.  This  is  why  it  is  said, 
and  truly,  "Fining  the  soil  may  be  equivalent  to 
fertilising  it."  One  way  of  fining  the  soil,  and 
hence  of  increasing  its  productive  power,  is  to  im- 
prove the  texture  by  adding  humus. 


328  S9ILS 

Storing  the  Rain. — Another  benefit  that  humus 
confers  upon  a  soil  is  that  of  increasing  its 
power  to  hold  moisture.  A  sand  may  contain 
enough  plant  food  for  a  crop,  but  the  crop 
will  not  grow  because  the  sand  cannot  sup- 
ply the  plant  with  water — it  is  too  leachy. 
Plants  not  only  need  water  to  drink,  but 
water  is  also  needed  to  carry  food  that  is 
dissolved  in  it  to  the  plants.  Soils  deficient 
in  humus  dry  out  quickly  in  a  time  of  drought. 
^There  may  be  an  abundance  of  plant  food 
in  the  soil,  but  it  is  useless  for  the  time  being 
if  there  is  not  enough  moisture  to  dissolve  it  and 
carry  it  to  the  plant.  Where  do  you  find  fish- 
worms  in  a  "dry  spell?"  I  dig  in  the  moist  soil 
beneath  the  chips  of  the  old  woodpile.  Chips 
have  decayed  there  in  the  soil  for  years.  It  is  full 
of  humus,  and  moisture,  and  worms.  Is  not  the 
soil  blacker,  richer,  and  more  moist  where  the  cur- 
rant bushes  have  been  mulched  every  year  with 
manure  or  straw  ?  So  in  the  larger  operations  of 
the  farm,  the  addition  of  humus  to  a  soil  from 
which  it  has  been  "burnt  out"  by  years  of  clean 
tillage  has  a  marked  effect  in  increasing  the 
power  of  that  soil  to  hold  moisture. 

Humus  Enriches  the  Soil. — When  a  plant  decays 
in  the  soil  it  returns  to  the  soil  practically  all  that 
was  taken  from  it.  But  there  are  additional  bene- 
fits. In  the  decay  of  the  plant  certain  acids  are 
formed  that  help  to  dissolve  some  of  the  unavail- 
able, or  unpalatable,  plant  food  in  the  soil.  All 
humus  is  a  store  of  nitrogen;  green-manuring  is 
the  cheapest  means  of  maintaining  the  supply  of 
this  plant  food.  If  the  plate  grown  for  green- 
manuring  are  "legumes  '  they  are  especially 
valuable  for  adding  nitrogen. 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    329 

TWO    KINDS   OF    GREEN  MANURE 

Almost  any  herbaceous  plant  has  some  value 
when  plowed  under  as  a  green  manure.  The 
weeds  that  get  a  foothold  in  the  garden  and  corn- 
field in  late  summer  serve  one  useful  purpose  in 
this  way.  But  the  trouble  with  weeds  for  green 
manure  is  that  we  cannot  depend  upon  them. 
They  come  in  where  they  have  a  mind  to,  not  as  we 
desire.  Usually  they  are  rank  in  the  hollows, 
where  the  soil  is  rich  and  needs  no  humus,  but  shun 
the  knolls,  where  the  soil  is  hard  and  needs  humus 
badly.  Sometimes  weeds  may  be  turned  to  good 
account  for  green-manuring,  but  usually  a  special 
crop  must  be  grown. 

There  is  a  distinction  between  crops  for  this  pur- 
pose.    They  may  be  * '  leguminous ' '  plants  or ' '  non- 
leguminous."     A  leguminous   plant   is   one   that, 
among  other  characteristics,  bears  its  seeds  in  a 
certain    kind    of    a    pod,    called    by  botanists    a 
"  legume."   Peas,  beans,  clovers,  vetches,  alfalfa, soy 
beans,  cowpeas,  are  examples  of  leguminous  plants 
commonly    used    for    green-manuring.      If    it    is 
known  that  the  soil  is  more  or  less  lacking  in  the 
)lant  food,  nitrogen,  a  leguminous  crop  should  be 
p*own  for  plowing  under  in  preference  to  a  non- 
eguminous   crop,  like    rape,    buckwheat    or    rye. 
rhrough  the  little  warts  or  nodules  on  their  roots 
<  eguminous  plants  may  feed  upon  the  nitrogen  that 
is  in  the  soil  air,  instead  of  drawing  upon  the  supply 
that  is  in  the  soil.     When  these  plants  are  plowed 
under,    therefore,    the   soil   is    enriched   with   the 
nitrogen   that   they   have   gathered.     The   plants 
themselves  are  richer  in  nitrogen,  and  have  a  nigher 
feeding  value,  when  the  nodules  are  on  their  roots. 
This  wonderful  process  of  "nitrogen-fixing"  has 


330  SOILS 

far-reaching  practical  application.  The  bacteria 
in  these  nodules,  which  can  be  seen  in  various 
sizes  on  the  roots  of  most  legumes,  are  so  small 
that  it  would  take  10,000  of  them  placed  side  by 
side  to  measure  an  inch.  Yet  these  tiny  germs 
save  the  farmers  of  this  country  millions  of  dollars 
that  would  otherwise  have  to  be  spent  for  fertilisers 
containing  nitrogen. 

If  the  soil  does  not  need  nitrogen,  but  does  need 
humus,  a  non-leguminous  crop  like  rye  or  rape  may 
be  grown.  The  leguminous  plants,  however,  are 
the  great  soil  "renovators."  The  clovers  in  the 
North  and  the  cowpea  in  the  South  have  built  up 
thousands  of  acres  of  soil  and  vastly  increased  their 
producing  power.  Most  of  these  plants,  especially 
clovers  and  alfalfa,  benefit  the  soil  in  still  an- 
other way;  they  deepen  it  through  their  deep- 
rooting  habit.  Clover  roots  bore  down  into  the 
soil  several  feet,  bringing  up  and  using  plant  food 
that  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  most  field 
crops.  This  is  handed  over  to  the  surface  soil 
when  the  plants  are  plowed  under.  But  some 
soils  will  not  grow  clover.  The  kind  of  crop  that 
should  be  grown  for  green-manuring,  and  how  to 
grow  it,  depend  upon  the  special  conditions  of  each 
farm. 

WHEN   A   GREEN-MANURING   CROP   MAY   BE    GROWN 

If  the  soil  is  badly  "run  down,"  and  the  land 
can  be  used  for  a  green-manuring  crop  without 
sacrificing  too  much,  the  crop  may  occupy  the 
ground  the  entire  season  or  even  for  several  sea- 
sons, as  when  red  clover  is  sown  in  the  spring,  cut 
the  following  year  and  the  second  crop  of  that  sea- 
son plowed  under.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  is  more 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS     331 

practicable  to  grow  green  manures  between  other 
crops,  or  as  a  part  of  a  definite  system  of  rotation. 
The  rotations  listed  in  the  Appendix  point  out 
many  ways  in  which  a  green-manuring  crop  may 
be  grown  without  losing  time.  The  effort  should 
be  to  have  a  "green  crop"  in  the  rotation  every 
few  years,  or  at  least  a  sod  to  plow  under  occasion- 
ally; for  there  is  humus  and  richness  in  a  sod  as 
well  as  in  a  crop  grown  especially  for  plowing 
under. 

Catch  Crops  and  Cover  Crops. — There  are  two 
ways  of  introducing  a  green -manuring  crop  for 
part  of  a  season.  One  is  the  use  of  a  "catch  crop," 
which  is  grown  during  the  season  between  the 
time  when  one  money-making  crop  is  harvested 
and  another  planted.  Catch  crops  are  used  most 
by  market  gardeners. 

Another  way  is  to  use  a  "cover  crop,"  which  is 
sown  late  in  the  season  after  the  main  crop  is  out 
of  the  way,  so  that  it  makes  some  growth  in  the 
autumn,  and  perhaps  in  early  spring  also.  A  cover 
crop  not  only  adds  humus  to  the  soil  but  it  also 
protects  the  soil  from  heaving  in  spring.  It  catches 
and  holds  the  soluble  plant  food  that  would  other- 
wise be  lost  in  seepage;  this  is  returned  to  the  soil 
when  the  crop  is  plowed  under  in  spring.  It  also 
catches  the  snows  and  drys  out  the  soil  earlier  in 
spring.  One  of  the  commonest  cover  crops  is  rye 
sown  in  corn  or  cotton  at  the  last  cultivation. 

Cover  crops  are  now  extensively  used  in  fruit 
growing.  In  addition  to  their  other  benefits,  cover 
crops  in  the  orchard  make  the  trees  mature  their 
wood  and  fruit  buds  earlier  in  the  fall  and  so  lessen 
danger  of  winter  injury.  There  are  hundreds  of 
ways  in  which  a  green-manuring  crop  may  be  intro- 
duced, depending  largely  upon  the  system  of 


332  SOILS 

farming  and  the  value  of  the  land.  It  does  not  pay 
to  allow  land  to  lie  bare  and  idle,  unless  necessary 
to  store  water  in  arid  farming.  Keep  it  busy.  Fill 
in  the  chinks  between  the  money  crops  with  catch 
crops  or  cover  crops  that  will  maintain  fertility; 
and,  if  engaged  in  staple-crop  farming,  endeavour 
to  include  a  green-manuring  crop  in  the  general 
rotation. 

FERTILISING   VALUE    OF   ROOTS   AND    STUBBLE 

It  is  not  always  necessary  to  plow  under  the 
entire  crop  in  order  to  gain  substantial  benefit  from 
green-manuring ;  in  fact,  it  is  seldom  practicable  to 
do  so.  The  roots  and  stubble  of  a  mature  crop  of 
cowpeas  or  clover  contain  about  one-third  of  the 
soil-improving  value  of  the  crop.  It  is  usually 
more  practicable,  particularly  with  leguminous  crops, 
to  harvest  the  hay,  especially  if  it  is  fed  on  the  farm 
and  the  manure  used  to  enrich  the  farm.  Thirty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  soil-improving  value  of  red 
clover  is  in  the  roots  and  stubble  left  after  the  crop 
is  cut.  If  the  crop  is  fed  or  pastured,  and  the 
manure  returned  to  the  land,  the  soil  gets  from  80 
to  90  per  cent,  of  the  full  manurial  value  of  the  crop, 
while  the  farmer  also  gets  its  full  value  for  feeding 
—a  case  of  eating  your  cake  and  having  it  too. 
Stock  husbandry  is  the  key  to  many  pleasant  sur- 
prises like  this. 

GREEN  MANURES   NOT   COMPLETE    FERTILISERS 

Green-manuring  alone  cannot  be  expected  to 
maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil  on  most  farms, 
although  it  will  contribute  very  largely  to  that  end. 
When  crops  are  grown  and  turned  under  there  is  no 


W     h 

SE 


j! 

E  t? 
" 


^  a 


97.     A  HILLSIDE  THAT  GULLIED  BADLY  .UNTIL  COVERED  WITH 
BERMUDA  GRASS  AND  LESPEDEZA 

These  hold  the  soil  perfectly.     There  are  many  cultivated  slopes  that 
ought  to  be  seeded 


98.  THE  DENSE  TURF  OF  BERMUDA  GRASS 

This  is  the  great  soil-binder  of  the  South.     It  takes  complete  possession  of  a  pasture  in 
two  or  three  years,  and  is  valuable  for  feeding.     It  spreads  like  "  quack  grass  " 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    333 

actual  gain  of  plant  food,  except  nitrogen  if  legu- 
minous crops  are  grown.  Ho  green  manures 
return  to  the  soil  any  more  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  than  they  took  from  the  soil.  No  matter  how 
long  and  how  skilfully  green-manuring  is-  con- 
ducted, it  will  not  enrich  the  soil  with  one  pound 
of  the  mineral  plant  foods,  although  it  may  make 
the  mineral  foods  already  in  the  soil  more  available, 
which  may  amount  to  the  same  thing,  so  far  as 
crop  production  is  concerned.  A  sharp  distinction 
should  be  made  here :  green-manuring  may  actually 
enrich  the  soil  in  nitrogen,  but  it  cannot  enrich  the 
soil  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid ;  it  may,  however, 
so  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil  that  plants  can  use 
more  of  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acicl  already  there. 
When  we  remember  that  most  farm  soils,  'even 
the  poorest,  contain  tons  of  plant  food,  we'  can 
believe  that  in  practical  effect,  though  not  in 
reality,  green-manuring  may  enrich  the  soil  in  all 
the  plant  foods.  The  mere  amount  of  plant  food 
in  the  soil  is  nothing  to  us:  it  is  the  ability  of  the 
soil  to  transform  this  material  into  plants  that  inter- 
ests us.  Green-manuring  helps  the  soil  to  do  this 
as  no  other  farm  practice  does,  except  the  use  of 
barn  manures.  We  cannot  expect  green-manuring 
to  relieve  us  of  the  necessity  for  buying  and  using 
the  mineral  plant  foods;  but  we  do  expect  that,  in 
certain  systems  of  farming,  it  will  make  unnecessary 
the  purchase  of  nitrogen,  and  that  it  will  greatly 
reduce  the  amount  of  the  mineral  plant  foods  that 
need  be  applied. 

IN06WLATING   THE    SOIL 

Under  some  conditions  a  leguminous  crop  that  is 
plowed    under   may  make  the   soil    richer   by   a 


334  SOILS 

hundred  or  more  pounds  of  nitrogen;  unde>  other 
conditions  it  may  add  little  if  any  nitrogen  to  the 
soil  except  that  which  it  has  drawn  from  the  soil. 
In  order  that  a  legume  may  gather  nitrogen  from 
the  air  there  must  be  "nitrogen-fixing  bacteria" 
in  nodules  on  its  roots.  If  the  legume  is  grown  in 
a  soil  that  has  never  been  used  for  that  crop,  or  not 
for  several  years,  there  may  be  none  of  these  bac- 
teria in  the  soil.  If  there  are  none  the  crop  will 
not  thrive,  or  very  few  nodules  will  be  found  on 
the  roots,  and  when  there  are  no  nodules  nitrogen  is 
not  gained.  If  a  leguminous  plant  is  dug  up  and 
no  nodules  can  be  found  on  the  roots,  one  may  be 
reasonably  sure  that  the  plant  is  not  gathering  from 
the  air  the  plant  food  that  costs  fifteen  cents 
a  pound  in  commercial  fertilisers,  but  that  it  is 
living  on  the  nitrates  in  the  soil. 

Inoculating  With  Old  Soil. — If  no  bacteria  are 
present,  they  must  be  supplied.  A  few  of  them 
often  cling  to  the  seeds  of  the  crop,  sometimes 
enough  to  inoculate  the  soil  quite  thoroughly 
after  one  or  two  crops  of  the  legume  have  been 
grown  in  it.  Usually,  however,  it  is  best  to  in- 
oculate with  soil  taken  from  a  field  on  which  that 
particular  crop  has  been  grown  successfully.  This 
soil  contains  millions  of  the  germs;  when  it  is 
broadcasted  or  drilled  in,  the  bacteria  are  spread 
and  will  find  the  roots  of  the  leguminous  crop 
when  it  is  planted.  From  400  to  800  Ibs.  of  soil 
is  sufficient.  It  is  best  to  take  the  soil  several 
inches  below  the  surface  and  in  a  part  of  the  field 
on  which  the  plants  had  many  nodules  the  year 
previous.  The  practice  of  sprinkling  old  soil  over 
a  new  field  has  given  luxuriant  crops  of  legumes  • 
after  failures  to  get  a  satisfactory  stand. 

Inoculating  With  Artificial   Cultures. — Another 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    335 

way  to  introduce  the  needful  bacteria  is  to  buy 
one  of  the  several  artificial  cultures.  Of  these, 
"nitro-culture"  is  probably  most  widely  known. 
These  preparations  contain  a  large  quantity  of  the 
bacteria  somewhat  as  a  yeast-cake  contains  the 
bacteria  that  make  bread  rise.  The  "soil  yeast- 
cake"  is  dissolved  in  warm  water  and  this  water 
sprinkled  on  a  quantity  of  soil,  which  is  then  dis- 
tributed on  the  new  land.  Very  uncertain  results 
have  attended  the  use  of  nitro-culture  and  similar 
preparations;  in  some  cases  the  soil  has  been  in- 
oculated ;with  bacteria  very  successfully;  in  other 
cases  no  beneficial  results  have  followed.  It  is 
evident  that  the  method  of  preparing  these  cul- 
tures has  not  yet  been  perfected.  Undoubtedly  the 
use  of  artificial  cultures  of  this  and  other  beneficial 
bacteria  will  some  time  become  common  and  suc- 
cessful, but  at  present  the  safest  way  is  to  get  old 
soil  if  it  can  be  had. 

Some  of  those  who  are  exploiting  these  preparations 
have  not  made  it  clear,  as  they  should,  that  in- 
oculating the  soil  with  this  material  assists  none 
but  leguminous  crops  to  secure  nitrogen;  and, 
furthermore,  that  it  may  help  to  enrich  the  soil  in 
no  plant  food  except  nitrogen.  The  "yeast-cake'* 
idea  appeals  strongly  to  the  popular  imagination 
and  the  most  absurd  claims  are  sometimes  made  for 
the  artificial  cultures.  Soil  inoculation  is  but 
one  of  many  means  of  maintaining  fertility,  and 
usually  it  is  a  very  incidental  means. 

Each  Crop  has  Different  Bacteria. — Not  one  kind 
of  bacteria  performs  this  service,  but  many — a  differ- 
ent kind  on  each  leguminous  crop.  According  to 
present  knowledge,  the  bacteria  mat  aid  clover  to 
feed  on  nitrogen  from  the  air,  do  not  aid  alfalfa, 
cowpeas  or  any  other  crop.  This  means  that  one 


336  SOILS 

must  get  old  soil,  or  an  artificial  culture,  for  each 
kind  of  leguminous  crop  grown.  It  is  probable 
that  the  several  kinds  of  bacteria  will  be  round  to 
be  more  or  less  interchangeable,  but  the  safest  way 
is  to  get  the  kind  that  go  with  the  crop  to  be  grown. 

It  is  often  found  that  the  first  year  a  leguminous 
crop  is  grown  the  stand  is  poor  and  the  growth 
unsatisfactory;  or  that  there  are  few  nodules  on 
the  roots,  snowing  that  little  nitrogen  is  being 
secured.  But  the  second  year  the  crop  will  be 
better  and  the  roots  have  more  nodules,  because 
the  bacteria  have  increased.  In  growing  legumi- 
nous crops,  therefore,  it  is  often  best  to  re-seed  on 
the  same  land  until  the  soil  becomes  well  filled  with 
bacteria.  Often  if  a  poor  stand  of  clover  or  alfalfa 
is  plowed  and  the  land  at  once  re-seeded  a  much 
better  stand  is  secured. 

Poor  Soils  Benefited  Most. — If  the  soil  is  already 
quite  well  supplied  with  available  nitrogen  legu- 
minous plants  growing  in  it  get  very  littlenitrogen 
from  the  air;  they  will  draw  upon  the  nitrogen  in 
the  soil.  Leguminous  plants  live  on  nitrogen  of  the 
air  only  when  they  have  to ;  when  there  is  very  little 
nitrogen  in  the  soil.  Cowpea  plants  on  poor  soil 
usually  have  many  more  nodules  on  their  roots 
than  cowpea  plants  on  a  rich  soil;  showing  that 
the  former  are  living  mainly  on  the  nitrogen  of  the 
air,  while  the  latter  are  living  mainly  on  the  nitro- 
gen in  the  soil.  Even  on  a  soil  already  rich  in 
nitrogen,  leguminous'crops  do  return  more  nitrogen 
to  the  soil  than  they  draw  from  it;  but  the  poorer 
the  soil  the  more  nitrogen  there  is  added  to  it.  The 
same  crop  of  cowpeas  may  add  100  Ibs.  of  nitrogen 
to  the  soil  or  25,  according  to  the  extent  to  which 
the  plants  have  been  obliged  to  get  nitrogen  from 
the  air.  This  calls  attention  again  to  the  peculiar 


99.    SOIL  IN  POOR  TEXTURE 
It  needs  more  humus  to  make  it  mellow 


100.    ON  LEFT,  A  CLOD  OF  CLAY  SOIL;  QN  RIGHT,  DECAYING 
STEMS  AND  LEAVES,  WHICH  BECOME  HUMUS 

Mix  the  humus  with  the  clay  and  note  improvement.     The  same  thing  can  be  done 
in  the  field,  on  a  larger  scale,  by  plowing  under  a  green  manure 


101.     NODULES,  OR  TUBERCLES,  ON  THE  ROOTS  OF  SOY  BEAN 

In  these  live  the  bacteria  that  may  take  nitrogen  from  the  soil  air,  and  turn  it  over  to 
the  plant.     Only  "leguminous"  plants — as  clover,  pea,  cowpea — can  do  this 


102.     COWPEAS  ON  "  WORN-OUT"  COTTON  FIELD 

Note  the  tiny  gullies;  the  fine  soil  has  been  mostly  washed  away.     The  cowpeas,  when 
plowed  under,  will  give  body  to  this  thin  soil  and  enrich  it 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    337 

value  of  leguminous  crops  for  improving  poor 
soils.  These  bacteria  do  not  multiply  on  sour  or 
wet  soils,  which  is  one  reason  why  light  soils  are 
usually  more  benefited  by  green-manuring  than 
heavy  soils. 

PLOWING   UNDER   A   GREEN   MANURE 

It  is  a  common  mistake  to  allow  a  cover  crop  to 

frow  late  into  the  spring,  and  until  it  gets  woody, 
efore  plowing  it  under.  Too  much  rank  herb- 
age may  dry  out  the  soil  that  season.  The 
earlier  it  is  plowed  under  the  more  moist  the_soii- 
is,  as  a  rule,  and  the  quicker  the  plants  decay.  li 
possible,  it  is  best  to  plow  under  a  green  manure-  at 
least  two  weeks  before  planting  the  succeeding 
crop,  so  that  it  may  partially  decay.  If  the  crop  is 
not  hardy,  as  oats  or  buckwheat,  it  is  usually  best 
to  allow  the  herbage  to  lie  on  the  surface  during 
the  winter,  and  plow  it  under  in  spring  rather  than 
to  plow  in  the  fall.  Little  if  any  of  the  manurial 
value  of  the  crop  is  lost  by  leaving  it  on  the  ground 
during  the  winter,  and  it  protects  the  surface  from 
washing.  Such  crops  as  the  cowpea  and  soy  bean 
are  exceptions  to  this  because  their  leaves  fall  off 
and  are  blown  away.  When  plowing  under  a  large 
amount  of  herbage,  a  drag  chain  is  serviceable.  In 
general,  it  is  much  better  to  plow  under  small  crops 
of  herbage  two  or  three  times  than  to  plow  under 
a  large  quantity  at  one  time.  * 

Like  every  other  farm  practice,  green-manuring 
has  limitations.  Some  crops  do  poorly  if  planted 
on  land  where  a  green  crop  has  just  been  plowed 
under.  Alfalfa,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  and 
buckwheat  are  among  these.  This  is  parti v  be- 
cause the  decay  of  a  large  amount  of  herbage  in  the 


338  SOILS 

soil  results  in  fermentation,  and  the  soil  becomes 
more  or  less  acid;  and  partly  because  the  herbage 
loosens  and  dries  out  the  soil  before  it  has  become 
thoroughly  decayed.  Potatoes  and  corn  do  not 
seem  to  mind  this.  In  any  case  it  isjbest,  if  prac- 
ticable, not  to  plant  a  crop  for  at  least  two  or  three 
weeks  after  a  large  amount  of  herbage  has  been 
plowed  under,  but  to  keep  the  land  fallow.  Lim- 
ing the  soil  at  the  time  of  green-manuring  is  often 
beneficial.  If  only  stubble  is  plowed  under,  or  a 
scanty  crop  of  herbage,  these  precautions  are  not 
necessary. 

LEGUMINOUS    CROPS   FOR   GREEN-MANURING 

Red  Clover  is  the  king  of  green-manuring  crops, 
especially  in  the  Northern  States.  This  is  partly 
on  account  of  its  very  deep  root  system,  which 
bores  through,  loosens  and  drains  the  subsoil  and 
brings  deep-lying  plant  food  to  the  surface.  It 
does  not  catch  well  on  soils  in  bad  heart ;  such  soils 
must  first  be  improved  by  plowing  under  rye  and 
other  coarser  crops.  The  seeding  is  ten  to  twenty 
pounds  per  acre.  In  the  North,  seeding  is  in  early 
spring  or  in  August;  in  the  South,  September  or 
October  sowing  is  preferred.  Usually  the  crop  is 
cut  or  pastured  one  or  two  years,  and  the  after- 
math is  plowed  under.  Unquestionably  red  clover 
is  the  most  valuable  plant  in  Northern  farming, 
where  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility  as  well  as  the 
largest  immediate  profits,  is  considered.  If  it  can 
be  worked  into  a  rotation  to  advantage  this  should 
be  done.  Be  sure  the  land  is  not  deficient  in  lime. 

The  preeminent  value  of  red  clover  for  improving 
soils  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  some  experiments 
by  Henry  W.  Geller.  Many  pots  of  ordinary  soil 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    339 

had  added  to  them  these  materials:  (1)  Fresh 
manure,  at  the  rate  of  20  tons  per  acre;  (2)  Clover 
stems  from  an  old  field,  dried  and  ground  to  meal; 
(3)  Ground  wheat  straw;  (4)  Ground  peat.  The 
effect  of  these  different  forms  of  humus  on  the  crop 
grown  in  the  soil  to  which  they  were  added,  was 
very  marked.  Mr.  Geller  concluded,  "Of  all  the 
different  kinds  of  organic  matter  applied,  clover 
liberated  the  most  plant  food";  and  again,  "The 
greatest  yield  was  obtained  from  the  soil  to  which 
clover  was  applied,  it  being  three  times  as  large  as 
the  yield  of  untreated  soil ;  while  the  crop  from  the 
manured  soil  was  twice  that  of  the  untreated  soil." 

The  Cowpea  is  to  the  South  what  clover  is  to  the 
North.  It  grows  anywhere  south  of  the  Ohio 
river,  and  in  some  places  farther  north,  especially 
along  the  Atlantic  Coast.  It  is  planted  only  in 
spring  or  summer,  as  frost  kills  it.  Cowpeas  may 
be  sown  after  wheat,  oats,  or  rye  and  the  crop  cut 
for  hay  in  time  for  fall  crops  to  be  sown.  The 
roots  feed  almost  as  deeply  as  those  of  clover  and 
the  plants  thrive  on  a  very  poor  soil,  provided  it  is 
not  too  wet.  It  is  seeded  at  the  rate  of  one  and  a 
half  to  three  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre,  either 
broadcast  or  drilled  in,  and  is  cultivated  two  or 
three  times.  The  vines  soon  cover  the  ground. 
They^are  commonly  cut  for  hay;  rarely  is  it  best 
to  plow  under  the  entire  crop. 

The  cowpea  is  most  valuable  as  a  catch  crop; 
it  fits  in  nicely  after  the  harvesting  of  one  staple  crop 
and  before  the  planting  of  another.  One  of  the 
best  ways  of  building  up  worn-out  cotton  land  in 
the  South  is  to  sow  rye  in  the  fall,  plow  it  under 
in  spring,  harrow  and  let  the  land  lie  fallow  for  a 
month,  then  sow  cowpeas.  Cut  this  crop  for  hay 
and  sow  rye  again.  Three  or  four  years  of  this 


340  SOILS 

treatment  will  make  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
soil.  Both  of  these  crops  thrive  on  very  poor 
land.  The  cowpea  has  worked  miracles  on  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  Southern  land;  it  is  a  great 
blessing  to  Southern  agriculture. 

Crimson  clover  deserves  third  place  in  the  list  of 
soil-improvers.  It  is  grown  chiefly  along  the 
Atlantic  sea-board  from  Massachusetts  to  Georgia, 
and  is  used  almost  entirely  as  a  cover  crop.  It  is 
sown  from  the  last  of  July  to  the  first  of  October 
at  the  rate  of  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed 
per  acre,  either  between  rows  of  standing  crops,  as. 
corn  or  cotton,  or  after  the  crop  has  been  narvested. 
The  peculiar  value  of  crimson  clover  lies  in  its 
ability  to  grow  late  into  the  winter,  and  to  begin 
growth  again  early  the  next  spring,  thus  accumulat- 
ing much  herbage  before  the  spring  plowing.  It 
gathers  nitrogen  most  industriously  during  this 
jperiod.  It  makes  good  winter  pasture.  In  the 
South,  crimson  clover  complements  the  cowpea, 
since  it  grows  at  a  season  when  the  cowpea  does 
not.  In  the  North  it  is  equally  at  home  and  is 
valued  highly. 

Alfalfa  is  the  greatest  soil-improver  of  arid 
farming  in  the  West.  At  the  Wyoming  Experi- 
ment Station  land  on  which  alfalfa  had  been  grown 
produced  $16  worth  more  of  potatoes  and  oats  per 
acre  than  similar  land  that  had  not  been  in  alfalfa, 
and  this  increase  was  secured  at  no  cost.  In  late 
years  the  culture  of  alfalfa  has  extended  over  many 
parts  of  the  East.  Wherever  it  can  be  grown  to 
advantage,  as  a  part  of  the  farm  rotation,  alfalfa  is 
one  of  the  very  best  means  of  maintaining  fertility, 
although  it  is  grown  primarily  as  a  forage  or  hay 
crop.  It  prefers  an  open  suosoil,  being  the  most 
deep-rooting  of  any  farm  crop;  this  makes  it  of 


103.     A  FIELD  OF  COWPEAS  GROWN  TO  IMPROVE  THE  SOIL 
The  cowpea  is  to  the  South  what  clover  is  to  the  North — the  great  soil  renovator 


A  SINGLE  COWPEA  VINE,  TWELVE  FEET  LONG,  OX  A 
NORTH  GEORGIA  FARM 

The  tops  will  be  cut  for  hay.  but  the  roots  and  stubble,  when  plowed  under,  greatly  improve 
the  soil,  as  they  contain  a  third  of  the  soil-improving  value  of  the  plant 


105.     VELVET  BEANS  GROWN  FOR  A  GREEN   MANURE  IN  FLORIDA 

The  vines  are  often  30  to  40  feet  long.     This  legume  largely  replaces  the 
cowpea  in  Florida 


106.    THE  RIGHT  PLACE  FOR  A  COVER  CROP— TO  PROTECT  THE 
BARE  GROUND  OF  CORN  FIELD  OVER  WINTER 

Nature's  cover  crop  of  weeds  is  not  evenly  distributed.     Rye  sown  at  the  last 
cultivation  in  summer  is  a  popular  cover  crop  for  corn 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    341 

unusual  value  in  improving  the  soil.  Seeding  is  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  per  acre,  and  after 
spring  frosts  in  the  North;  fall  seeding  is  preferred 
in  the  South.  The  sod  is  cut  for  three  to  eight 
years;  hence  alfalfa  can  be  used  only  in  a  long 
rotation. 

Other  Leguminous  Green  Manures. — The  four 
plants  mentioned  above  are  the  great  soil-improvers 
of  America.  Other  crops  are  often  or  occasionally 
grown.  Canadian  field  peas  are  frequently  grown 
in  the  North,  especially  on  rough  soils,  and  either 
alone  or  sown  with  grains  to  support  the  vines. 
The  seeding  is  one  and  a  half  to  two  bushels  per 
acre.  Market  gardeners  often  grow  garden  peas, 
pick  the  pods  and  then  plow  under  the  vines,  thus 
getting  double  value  from  the  crop.  Vetches  of 
various  kinds,  particularly  the  smooth  vetch  and 
the  hairy  vetch,  are  often  used,  especially  in  the 
Pacific  Northwest.  Vetches  are  used  extensively 
for  orchard  cover  crops  in  the  East.  The  seeding 
is  about  one  bushel  per  acre.  Hairy  vetch  may 
become  a  bad  weed  unless  looked  after  sharply. 


The  soy  bean,  also  called  "soja  bean"  and  "Jap- 
anese pea,"  is  very  serviceable  in  many  sections.  It 
is  hardier  than  the  cowpea  and  can  be  grown 
farther  north.  When  grown  for  soil  improvment 
the  whole  crop  should  be  plowed  under,  as  the 
roots  and  stubble  do  not  contain  such  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  pl^nt  foods  as  clover  and  cowpea 
stubble.  White  sweet  clover  and  lupines  are 
sometimes  grown  for  green-manuring. 

NON-LEGUMININOUS   CROPS    FOR    GREEN-MANURING 

Rye  is  the  most  useful  of  plants  that  improve  the 
soil  when  plowed  under,  but  do  not  enrich  it  in 


342  SOILS 

nitrogen,  not  being  legumes.  It  is  commonly  used 
as  a  cover  crop,  sown  in  corn,  after  potatoes,  etc., 
from  August  first  to  November  first,  the  seeding 
being  one  and  a  half  to  three  bushels.  It  is 
especially  valuable  for  building  up  light  soils  or 
soils  in  such  bad  texture  that  legumes  do  not  thrive. 
Rye  grows  late  and  begins  growth  very  early  in 
spring,  thus  using  and  returning  to  the  soil  much 
nitrogen  that  would  be  leached  away  from  bare 
soils  at  this  time.  It  makes  good  winter  and 
spring  pasture.  Wheat  is  sometimes  used  for  the 
same  purpose. 

Oats  and  buckwheat  are  used  when  a  crop  is 
needed  which  will  be  killed  by  winter.  Buck- 
wheat is  especially  valuable  for  very  light  and 
poor  soils. 

Rape  is  a  valuable  forage  and  green-manuring 
crop,  especially  as  a  cover  crop.  Like  rye,  it  grows 
until  the  ground  freezes,  and  begins  growth  again 
very  early  the  following  spring.  Winter  rape, 
however,  is  not  hardy  in  the  Northern  States ;  spring 
rape,  especially  Dwarf  Essex,  is  valued  there. 

White  mustard  is  frequently  used  to  improve 
light  sandy  soils  and  is  especially  useful  as  a  catch 
crop.  It  grows  very  rankly  in  late  fall  and  is  not 
killed  until  the  ground  freezes.  The  seeding  is 
about  one-third  bushel  per  acre.  It  does  not 
become  a  weed. 

THE   RENOVATION   OF  WORN-OUT   SOILS 

How  to  restore  productiveness  to  soils  that  have 
lost  their  power  to  produce  profitable  crops,  and 
are  said  to  be  "worn-out,"  is  one  of  the  great  farm 
problems  of  to-day.  There  are  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  acres  of  worn-out  soils  in  the  Atlantic 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    343 

States.  The  older  soils  of  the  East,  which  have 
been  cultivated,  more  or  less,  for  two  or  three  cen- 
turies, were  the  first  to  decline.  Gradually  the 
area  of  worn-out  soils  is  extending  westward.  Even 
some  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  soils  that  fifty  years 
ago  were  thought  to  be  of  inexhaustible  fertility, 
are  now  said  to  be  about  worn-out. 

The  history  of  the  East  is  being  repeated  in  the 
West.  The  virgin  soils  there  are  now  said  to  have 
an  inexhaustible  wealth  of  fertility;  yet  sooner  or 
later  the  crops  on  even  these  wonderful  soils  will 
decline.  Tnen  those  agricultural  freebooters  whose 
whole  idea  of  tilling  the  soil  seems  to  be  that  of 
merely  skimming  off  the  cream  of  Nature's  in- 
crease, will  pass  on  to  virgin  soils,  leaving 
behind  land  that  it  will  take  years  of  careful 
farming  to  bring  back  to  its  normal  productive- 
ness. 

The  agricultural  history  of  our  country,  so  far  as 
soil  management  is  concerned,  is  far  from  being 
a  credit  to  the  genius  of  our  people.  It  has  been 
marked  by  the  most  ruthless  soil  robbery  on  the 
largest  scale  that  the  world  has  ever  known. 
Virgin  lands  have  been  cleared,  their  fatness  wrung 
from  them  with  little  or  no  returns,  until  the  crops 
have  dwindled  to  but  a  fraction  of  the  bountiful 
harvests  of  pioneer  days.  Then  the  son,  who  has 
fallen  heir  to  the  inevitable  result  of  the  spend- 
thrift farming  of  his  father,  moves  West.  The 
most  disheartening  feature  of  all  is  that  nine  times 
out  of  ten  he  follows  there  the  same  course  which 
has  brought  poverty  to  so  many  farm  homes  in  the 
East.  Western  farming  is  as  improvident  now  as 
Eastern  farming  has  been,  and  still  is  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  We  cannot  escape  from  the 
criticism  of  J.  J.  Hill:  "American  farmers  have 


344  SOILS 

barely  skimmed  the  soil;  there  is  little  intensive 
farming  in  this  country." 

The  problem  of  worn-out  soils  is  vital  now  and  is 
becoming  more  insistent  as  our  agriculture  ages. 
Fortunately  the  East  has  at  last  awakened  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  situation,  and  is  reclaiming  her 
worn-out  soils  with  satisfactory  results.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  before  the  ricn  farm  soils  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  westward  have  been  brought 
to  the  low  productiveness  that  many  Eastern  soils 
have  now  reached — and  they  are  surely  trending 
that  way — Western  farmers  will  adopt  me  methods 
of  husbandry  that  are  necessary  to  maintain 
fertility. 

How  to  Begin  the  Work  of  Soil  Improvement. — 
The  methods  that  are  of  service  in  renovating  worn- 
out  soils  include  all  the  points  in  soil  management 
that  have  been  noted  in  the  preceding  chapters. 
Undoubtedly  there  are  a  few  worn-out  soils  that  are 
exhausted  chemically:  they  are  actually  deficient 
in  plant  food.  But  most  of  them  are  worn-out 
physically.  They  are  unproductive,  because 
they  have  been  mismanaged.  This  mismanage- 
ment may  have  consisted  partly  in  bad  handling, 
such  as  plowing  too  shallow,  or  when  the  soil  was 
wet,  or  in  not  checking  erosion.  It  is  more  likely, 
however,  to  be  due  to  mismanagement  as  regaras 
rotation  of  crops;  and  probably  it  is  due  most  of 
all  to  mismanagement  as  regards  maintaining  the 
supply  of  humus  in  the  soil.  Most  worn-out  soils 
are  in  special  need  of  humus.  Green-manuring  is 
of  greater  importance  in  the  renovation  of  worn- 
out  soils  than  any  other  factor. 

In  most  cases  the  quickest  and  easiest  way,  to 
begin  with,  is  to  grow  leguminous*crops  for  green- 
manures.  But  green-manuring  will  be  made  more 


MANURING  AND  WORN-OUT  SOILS    345 

effective,  and  certainly  more  remunerative,  if  it 
can  be  associated  witn  some  form  of  stock  hus- 
bandly, so  that  the  crops  may  be  fed  or  pastured  on 
the  place  and  the  manure  returned  to  the  soil. 
Stock-feeding,  not  clover,  cowpeas  nor  any  other 
plant,  is  the  key  to  the  most  economical  main- 
tenance of  soil  fertility  in  general  farming.  There 
are  few  sections  of  the  country  where  it  is  not 
practicable  to  raise  some  kind  or  stock. 

When  animal  manures  are  not  available,  how- 
ever, green-manuring  alone  will  improve  worn-out 
soils,  but  less  economically.  Commercial  fer- 
tilisers have  little  value  for  restoring  a  worn-out 
soil  if,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  texture  of  the  soil, 
not  its  chemical  contents,  is  at  fault.  They  are 
of  far  greater  usefulness  after  the  soil  has  been  put 
into  good  heart  by  green-manuring  or  the  addition 
of  animal  manures. 

The  final  step  in  the  improvement  of  a  worn- 
out  soil  is  to  put  it  into  a  rotation  of  crops  which 
is  not  exhaustive  and  which  makes  provision  for 
a  continuance  of  the  various  farm  practices  that 
maintain  fertility.  Thousands  of  acres  of  land 
in  the  East,  thought  to  be  worn-out,  have  been 
restored  to  bountiful  productiveness  by  these 
methods. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FARM   MANURES 

FROM   the   beginning    of  agriculture,   appli- 
cations of  manures   have  been  the    chief 
means  of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  farm 
soils.     Manuring  has  been  assisted,  to  some  extent, 
by  green-manuring  and  crop  rotation.     In  modern 
agriculture  increasing  prominence  is  being  given 
to  these  latter  practises.     But  it  is  not  likely  that 
manuring  will  ever  be  displaced  as  the  most  widely 
practicea  and  most  economical  method  of  main- 
taining the  fertility  of  the  land. 

The  vital  relation  between  stock  husbandry  and 
crop  husbandry  has  been  emphasised  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter.  The  practical  advantages  of 
associating  these  two  coordinate  branches  of 
agriculture  are  more  generally  admitted  to-day 
than  at  any  previous  time.  Farmers  are  beginning 
to  abandon  the  wasteful  methods  of  pioneer  days, 
to  curtail  the  present  extravagant  use  of  artificial 
fertilisers,  and  to  rely  more  and  more  upon  Nature's 
provisions  for  maintaining  fertility  and  the  excre- 
ments of  animals — the  return  of  plants  to  the  soil. 
The  first  provision  is  discussed  in  the  preceding 
chapter;  the  second  in  this  chapter. 

HOW   MANURE    BENEFITS   THE    SOIL 

The  real  value  of  manures  and  their  effect  upon 
the  soil  were  not  known  until  quite  recently;  and 
it  is  altogether  probable  that  even  now  we  have 
but  just  begun  to  understand  the  manifold  ways  in 

346     . 


FARM  MANURES  347 

which  manure  improves  the  soil.  There  was  a 
time  when  the  value  of  manure  was  thought  to  be 
only  or  chiefly  the  value  of  the  plant  food  it  con- 
tained. It  was  even  said  that  since  a  ton  of  stable 
manure  contains  but  $2  to  $4  worth  of  nitrogen,  pot- 
ash and  phosphoric  acid,  that  the  same  amount  of 
plant  food  could  be  obtained  and  applied  more 
cheaply  in  the  form  of  a  commercial  fertiliser.  This 
is  true ;  but  the  conclusion  must  not  be  drawn  that 
manure  might  well  be  supplanted  by  commercial 
fertilisers.  From  the  chemist's  point  of  view  a  ton 
of  manure  may  be  worth  but  $2,  because  that  is  the 
value  of  all  the  plant  food  in  it.  From  the  farmer's 
point  of  view  manure  may  be  worth  several  times 
that  amount.  The  farmer  knows  that  he  cannot 
buy  $2  worth  of  artificial  fertiliser  that  will  give 
the  results  on  most  soils  that  one  ton  of  manure  will. 
This  fact,  which  is  realised  by  farmers  everywhere, 
has  led  to  a  very  careful  investigation  of  the  ways  in 
which  manure  benefits  the  soil,  aside  from  adding 
the  small  amount  of  plant  food  it  contains.  These 
supplementary  benefits,  which  the  chemist  knows 
notning  of  and  does  not  consider  in  his  estimates  of 
the  value  of  different  kinds  of  manures,  are  often 
of  far  greater  practical  value  in  crop  production 
than  the  plant  food  that  the  manure  contains. 

Manure  Improves  Texture  of  the  Soil. — The 
chief  value  of  manure,  on  many  soils  is  not  the  plant 
food  it  adds  but  its  beneficial  effect  upon  the  tex- 
ture of  the  soil.  In  the  preceding  chapter  it  was 
shown  that  most  farm  soils,  even  those  that  are 
unproductive  and  worn-out,  contain  large  amounts 
of  plant  food;  and  that  the  cause  of  the  unpro- 
ductiveness is  more  apt  to  be  that  the  soil  is  in  poor 
condition,  or  bad  heart,  than  that  it  is  exhausted  of 
plant  food. 


348  SOILS 

One  of  the  great  functions  of  manure  is  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  soil,  so  that  the 
plant  can  more  readily  use  the  plant  food  in  it. 
Examine  old,  dry,  cow  dung  in  the  pasture.  The 
plant  food  in  it  has  been  mostly  washed  out;  a 
spongy,  fibrous  material  is  left  which,  when 
crumbled,  presents  such  equable  conditions  of 
moisture  and  temperature,  that  florists  like  to  sow 
cineraria  and  other  extremely  fine  and  delicate 
seeds  upon  it.  This  material,  which  is  about  one- 
quarter  of  the  original  substance  of  manure — the 
balance  being  water — is  composed  mostly  of  food 
that  the  animal  did  not  digest.  When  incorpo- 
rated with  the  soil  it  greatly  improves  the  texture, 
loosening  a  heavy,  compact  soil  and  binding  to- 
gether a  light,  leachy  one;  making  the  soil  more 
friable,  warmer,  more  retentive  of  moisture  and 
more  congenial  to  plants  in  every  way. 

In  three  years'  experiments,  King  found  that 
manured  fallow  ground  contained  eighteen  tons 
more  water  per  acre  in  the  first  foot  of  soil  than 
similar  land  unmanured,  while  the  total  gain  of 
water  in  the  first  three  feet  of  soil  was  thirty-four 
tons.  Being  already  fine  and  partially  decayed, 
the  vegetable  matter  in  manure  is  at  once  thor- 
oughly incorporated  with  the  soil,  becoming  humus; 
while  a  green-manuring  crop  plowed  under  is  con- 
verted into  humus  slowly.  No  one  who  has  seen 
the  almost  magical  improvement  in  a  hard,  clay 
soil  by  a  single  liberal  dressing  of  manure  can  doubt 
that  its  value  is  largely,  sometimes  mostly,  in  its 
effect  upon  soil  texture. 

The  Bacteria  in  Manure. — Aside  from  the  humus 
it  adds,  manure  benefits  the  soil  in  other  ways,  most 
of  which  are  still  imperfectly  understood!  It  is 
known  that  manure  contains  countless  numbers  of 


107.     A  COMMON,  AND  AN  EXTREMELY  WASTEFUL  METHOD  OF 

STORING  FARM  MANURES 

Rains  and  the  drippings  from  the  eaves  may  wash  out  two  thirds  of  the  plant  food 
in  this  manure  before  it  is  spread  upon  the  land 


108.     THE  DARK-COLOURED  PUDDLE  IN  THE  BARNYARD  CONTAINS 
THE  ESSENCE  AND  THE  RICHNESS  OF  THE  MANURE 

No  man  can  maintain  the  fertility  of  his  farm  economically  if  he  permits  such  a  waste 


109.     THE   MANURE   PILES   FROM   THIS   BARN   DRAIN   INTO   THE 
POND,  WHICH  IS  COVERED  WITH  "DUCK  MEAT"  IN 

TESTIMONY  OF  ITS  RICHNESS 
Good  for  ducks,  but  the  land  of  this  farmer  needs  that  fertility  badly 


110.     MANURE  WAGON.  WHICH  RECEIVES  THE  MANURE  FROM  THE 
STALLS  AND  FROM  WHICH  IT  IS  SPREAD  ON 

THE  LAND  EACH  DAY 
The  sooner  manure  is  got  upon  the  land  the  better 


FARM  MANURES  349 

bacteria  that  are  beneficial  to  the  soil.  When  the 
vegetable  matter  in  manure  decays  in  the  soil 
certain  acids  and  ferments  are  produced  which  have 
a  decided  influence  upon  the  supply  of  available 
plant  food.  In  short,  the  addition  of  manure  to 
larm  soils  sets  in  motion  a  series  of  activities  which 
profoundly  affect  the  productivity  of  the  land.  All 
this  is  in  addition  to  the  plant  food  value  of  manure. 
It  is  altogether  probable  that  we  do  not  know  half 
of  the  direct  and  indirect  benefits  of  manure  upon 
farm  soils.  But  we  do  know  enough  about  it  to 
place  its  agricultural  value  far  above  its  plant  food 
value.  Commercial  fertilisers  influence  the  soil 
almost  solely  in  regard  to  its  supply  of  plant  food ; 
farm  manures  influence  all  the  soil  conditions  which 
are  essential  to  the  production  of  profitable  crops. 
There  is  no  comparison  whatever  oetween  the  two. 

THE    COMPARATIVE    PLANT   FOOD    VALUE 
OF    DIFFERENT   MANURES 

The  amount  of  plant  food  in  different  kinds  of 
manure  depends  upon  the  animals  from  which  it 
came  and  the  care  it  has  received.  Analyses  of 
the  excretions  of  various  animals  are  given  in  the 
Appendix.  It  will  be  noted  that  horse  manure  is 
richer  in  nitrogen  than  either  cow  or  hog  manure. 
An  average  sample  contains  about  6  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  3  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  and  5  per 
cent,  of  potash.  It  is,  however,  liable  to  "fire 
fang,"  or  ferment,  unless  kept  compact  and  moist; 
this  lowers  its  value  somewhat.  Horse  manure 
varies  in  composition  more  than  any  other,  because 
of  the  greater  variety  of  ways  in  which  it  is  handled, 
particularly  as  regards  the  use  of  bedding. 

Cow  and  hog  manure  contain  more  water  than 


350  SOILS 

other  kinds  and  are  relatively  poorer  in  plant 
food,  especially  in  nitrogen.  An  average  sample 
of  either  contains  about  4  per  cent,  of  nitro- 
gen, 2  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  5  per 
cent,  of  potash. 

Sheep  manure  is  commonly  richer  than  the 
manure  of  any  other  farm  animal,  except  poultry. 
It  is  comparatively  dry  and  since  it  is  usually  al- 
lowed to  accumulate  in  pens,  where  it  is  tramped 
hard  by  the  animals,  it  is  less  apt  to  suffer  a  loss  of 
plant  food  than  other  kinds.  Ordinarily  it  con- 
tains about  8  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  2  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  7  per  cent,  of  potash. 

Poultry  manure  is  the  richest  of  farm  manures, 
largely  because  it  contains  the  semi-solid  urine, 
and  mere  is  little  waste.  It  is  especially  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid.  An  average  sample 
contains  12  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  9  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  6  per  cent  of  potash. 

Average  values  for  different  manures  are :  Sheep 
manure,  $4.20  per  ton;  mixed  farmyard  manure, 
$2.25  per  ton;  hen  manure,  $6.50  per  ton;  hog 
manure,  $3.20  per  ton;  livery-stable  manure,  $2.45 
per  ton;  cow  manure,  $2.43  per  ton.  These  figures 
are  based  solely  on  their  plant  food  content  and  do 
not  consider  the  value  of  the  manure  for  improving 
the  soil  in  other  ways. 

THE    QUALITY   OF   MANURE 

The  age  and  the  condition  of  the  animal  influence 
the  quality  of  manure.  Manure  from  young  ani- 
mals is  not  as  rich  as  that  from  full  grown  animals, 
because  the  former  digest  a  larger  proportion  of 
their  food  than  the  latter.  Cows  in  milk  return 
only  about  65  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  manurial  value 


FARM  MANURES  351 

of  their  food  in  their,  excrements,  while  cows  that 
are  being  fattened  return  80  to  90  per  cent. 

The  kind  of  food  that  the  animal  eats  has  a 
marked  effect  upon  the  richness  of  its  manure. 
The  more  grain  mere  is  fed  to  them,  especially  such 
foods  as  wheat  bran,  gluten  meal  and  cotton-seed 
meal,  the  richer  the  manure,  since  these  grains  are 
rich  in  protein.  Animals  fed  solely  on  hay  of  poor 
quality  produce  manure  that  is  much  inferior  to 
that  of  grain-fed  animals.  In  short,  the  richer  the 
ration,  the  richer  the  manure. 

The  kind  and  quantity  of  bedding  used  affects  the 
value  of  manure,  also  the  individuality  of  the  animal. 
Some  animals  use  a  larger  proportion  of  their  food 
for  making  milk,  or  beef,  or  mutton,  than  others; 
what  is  not  used  is  recovered  in  the  manure. 

HOW   MANURE    IS   WASTED 

There  are  still  many  sections  where  barn  manure 
is  not  used  upon  the  land,  and,  in  fact,  is  considered 
a  nuisance.  In  parts  of  Oregon  farmers  give 
away  manure  for  the  hauling,  and  are  glad  to  be 
rid  of  it.  In  counties  of  California  and  Oklahoma 
manure  is  dumped  into  the  river.  Some  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  North  Dakota  farmers  use  it  to  fill  up 
holes,  or  dump  it  in  heaps  beside  the  fields  and 
roads.  Some  South  Dakota  farmers  burn  it  to 
get  rid  of  it.  In  Idaho  it  is  frequently  seen  piled 
as  high  as  a  barn.  The  waste  of  manure  in  parts 
of  the  West  is  a  painful  sight  to  the  Eastern  farmer 
who  knows  that  the  land  will  soon  be  in  need  of  it. 
On  the  very  farms  where  manure  is  thrown  away 
in  this  manner  the  soil  is  often  greatly  benefited  by 
it,  even  now.  These  improvident  methods,  how- 
ever, are  becoming  less  and  less  common. 


352  SOILS 

The  plant  food  in  manure  is  subject  to  serious 
loss.  Although  there  may  be  but  little  plant  food  in 
manure,  as  compared  with  artificial  fertilisers,  yet 
most  of  it  is  very  soluble  and  is  easily  lost,  if  the 
manure  is  not  handled  carefully.  The  plant  food 
in  manure  is  wasted  in  two  ways;  by  leaching  and 
by  fermentation. 

The  Leaching  oi  Manure. — No  other  farm 
practice  has  been  discussed  more  than  that  of  al- 
lowing plant  food  to  leach  from  manures.  One 
can  scarcely  attend  a  farmers'  institute  without 
hearing  about  it,  or  read  a  farm  journal  without 
seeing  a  reference  to  it.  All  this  agitation  has 
probably  saved  many  million  dollars,  worth  of 
plant  food  that  otherwise  would  have  been  wasted. 
Vet  is  it  doubtful  if  one  per  cent,  of  American  farm- 
ers realise  what  they  lose  by  neglecting  to  care 
for  manures  properly.  One  estimate  places  the 
annual  loss  of  plant  food  on  American  farms,  by 
leaching  from  manure  that  could  easily  have  been 
prevented,  as  $200,000,000  or  over  four  times  what 
is  paid  each  year  for  commercial  fertilisers.  If  the 
leaks  on  a  few  farms  are  noted,  and  the  number  of 
farms  in  a  neighbourhood  that  suffer  similar 
losses  are  counted,  one  will  conclude  that  this 
estimate  is  not  too  high.  The  saving  of  manures 
is  indeed  a  threadbare  subject;  but  there  is  such 
urgent  need  that  farmers  adopt  better  methods  of 
handling  manures  that  one  is  justified  in  harping 
upon  it 

One  of  the  most  common  farm  scenes  in  eastern 
United  States  is  a  row  of  manure  piles  beneath  the 
eaves  of  the  barn.  Each  pile  extends  up  to  the 
hole  or  window  out  of  which  it  was  thrown  from 
behind  the  cows  or  horses.  Water  from  the  roof 
drips  upon  it;  rains  and  snows  beat  upon  it;  winds 


FARM  MANURES  353 

dry  it.  After  a  heavy  rain  the  puddles  in  the  yard 
are  black  with  richness  that  has  leached  from  these 
piles  of  manure.  This  is  the  fertility  of  the  farm, 
running  to  waste.  Manure  handled  in  this  way  may 
lose  over  half  of  its  plant  food.  Roberts  found 
that  a  ton  of  manure  exposed  in  this  way  for  six 
months  lost  42  per  cent,  of  its  plant  food.  Another 
ton  exposed  from  April  25  to  Sept.  22  lost  60  per 
cent,  of  its  nitrogen,  47  per  cent,  of  its  phosphoric 
acid  and  76  per  cent,  of  its  potash,  a  loss  in  value 
from  $2.80  per  ton  to  $1.06.  When  the  pile  of 
exposed  manure  is  finally  hauled  away  it  has  lost 
a  large  part  of  its  soil-improving  value.  A  dark- 
coloured  stain  on  the  side  of  the  barn  is  pretty 
good  evidence  of  shiftless  farming  in  this  respect. 

The  loss  of  plant  food  from  manure  by  leaching 
depends  largely  upon  the  climate;  the  wetter  it 
is  the  greater  the  loss.  In  the  arid  and  semi-arid 
regions  it  is  not  large;  but  in  every  case  it  is  large 
enough  to  set  every  farmer  to  thinking  how  he  may 
best  prevent  it. 

Loss  from  Fermentation.  Another  way  in  which 
manure  often  loses  value  is  by  heating,  or  fermenta- 
tion. When  manure  is  piled  up,  especially  horse 
manure,  it  begins  to  heat  and  decay.  This  fer- 
mentation is  caused  by  the  growth  of  bacteria. 
These  need  heat  and  air;  the  warmer  the  manure 
is,  and  the  more  loosely  it  is  piled,  so  that  it  is  full 
of  air,  the  more  quickly  it  heats.  The  nitrogen  in 
fermenting  manure  is  rapidly  changed  into  am- 
monia, which  escapes  into  the  air.  Every  one  has 
noticed  the  pronounced  "smell"  of  manure  piled 
up  loosely  and  heating.  It  is  plant  food  escaping. 

The  heating  of  manure  also  injures  it  in  another 
way.  Part  of  the  vegetable  matter  in  it,  which 
becomes  humus  when  applied  to  the  soil,  is  burned. 


354  SOILS 

The  higher  the  manure  heats,  the  greater  is  the 
loss.  Dry,  white,  "fire-fanned**  manure  has  had 
a  large  part  of  its  humus-making  material  destroyed. 
Loss  from  the  Escape  of  Urine. — A  third  way  in 
which  manure  loses  value  is  by  failing  to  catch  the 
liquid  portion.  This  contains  more  nitrogen  and 
more  potash  than  the  dung;  yet,  in  many  cases, 
liquid  manure  is  allowed  to  run  to  waste,  while  the 
dung  is  saved.  Moreover  the  plant  food  in  the 
liquid  portion  is  immediately  available  to  plants. 
It  should  be  saved  as  carefully  as  the  solid  portions 
of  the  excrements. 

HOW  TO   CARE   FOR  MANURES 

Leaching  usually  causes  more  loss  of  plant  food 
from  manure  than  either  fermentation  or  the  waste 
of  liquid  manure;  attention  should  first  be  given  to 
preventing  this  loss.  There  are  two  ways  of  doing 
this :  by  hauling  the  fresh  manure  from  the  stable 
and  spreading  it  upon  the  land  at  once;  and  by 
piling  it  under  cover. 

Hauling  manure  direct  from  stable  to  field  in- 
volves little  or  no  loss  of  fertility,  as  compared  with 
storing  it,  and  is  the  most  satisfactory  method 
whenever  it  is  expedient.  Usually,  however,  it  is 
not  expedient  to  do  this  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year;  it  would  interfere  very  seriously  with  other 
farm  work,  while  the  hauling  of  stored  manure 
may  be  done  to  advantage  in  late  fall  and  very 
early  spring  when  other  work  is  not  pressing. 

Usually  at  least  a  portion  of  the  manure  must  be 
stored,  especially  that  made  during  the  busy 
months  of  seed  time  and  harvest.  In  this  case  there 
is  but  one  sane  thing  to  do;  that  is,  to  pile  the 
manure  under  cover.  This  is  the  only  safe  way 


FARM  MANURES  355 

to  prevent  leaching;  a  single,  heavy,  summer 
shower  may  leach  away  enough  plant  food  from 
an  exposed  pile  to  pay  a  large  part  of  the  slight 
expense  of  covering  the  pile. 

Covered  barnyards  are  sometimes  practicable. 
The  animals  tramp  the  manure  and  so  keep  it 
from  fermenting.  The  cattle  are  exercised  and 
watered  there,  in  winter  especially.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  use  a  considerable  quantity  of 
beading  and  to  keep  the  yard  dry.  A  yard  30  x  50 
feet  is  large  enough  for  fifteen  to  twenty  cows,  but 
they  should  be  dehorned. 

Manure  Pits. — Another  method,  preferred  by 
many,  is  to  build  shallow,  covered  cement  pits, 
adjacent  to  the  stable.  Into  these  the  manure  is 
dumped ;  the  liquid  manure  from  the  gutters  in  the 
stable  may  drain  into  them.  In  large  dairy  stables 
manure  is  collected  on  trucks  or  cars  which  are 
run  on  tracks  to  these  pits.  The  pits  should  be 
large  enough  to  hold  the  manure  made  in  several 
weeks,,  or  as  long  as  it  is  convenient  to  wait  before 
hauling  it  to  the  field.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
practicable  ways  of  storing  manure. 

If  a  cement  pit  cannot  be  had,  and  the  manure 
must  be  stored  outside  the  barn,  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  build  a  shed  over  it.  But  part  of  the 
liquid  in  the  manure  will  drain  off,  and  the  farmer 
can  ill  afford  to  lose  it.  Therein  is  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  covered  cement  pits. 

Many  barns  are  built  so  that  the  manure  can  be 
shoved  down  a  scuttle  into  a  cellar.  In  some 
cases  the  cellar  is  cement-lined  and  excellent  con- 
ditions for  storing  manure  are  thus  secured.  Often 
the  cellar  bottom  is  not  cemented  allowing  the  loss 
of  part  of  the  liquid  manure.  Cellars  beneath  the 
stable  do  very  well,  so  far  as  the  saving  of  manure 


356  SOILS 

is  concerned;  but  there  are  decided  sanitary 
objections  to  this  method.  The  stable  above  is 
almost  sure  to  be  bad-smelling.  Thorough  ventila- 
tion and  the  use  of  gypsum  will  do  much  to  alleviate 
this  condition;  but  manure  should  be  stored  away 
from,  not  beneath,  the  animals,  especially  in  a  dairy. 

The  manure  of  animals  confined  in  pens,  as 
sheep  and  young  stock,  is  usually  stored  without 
serious  loss,  if  it  is  allowed  to  accumulate  and  an 
abundance  of  bedding  is  used.  The  manure  is 
tramped  down  very  firmly  by  the  animals,  all  the 
liquid  portion  is  absorbed,  and  there  is  little  loss 
by  fermentation  or  leaching. 

How  to  Prevent  Loss  by  Heating. — The  fermenta- 
tion that  makes  manure  deteriorate  in  value  takes 
place  only  when  it  is  piled  loosely,  so  that  air  passes 
through  it  readily.  Compacting  the  manure,  as 
with  the  tramping  of  animals,  prevents  this  loss. 
Manure  must  also  be  only  moist,  not  wet,  in  order 
to  ferment;  so  that  if  it  is  kept  wet  with  the  liquid 
excrement,  there  is  little  likelihood  that  it  will  heat. 
Sometimes  it  is  practicable  to  wet  the  manure 
occasionally.  If  fermenting  manure  has  a  small 
amount  of  fresh  manure  mixed  with  it  the  heating 
will  be  checked. 

Methods  of  Saving  Liquid  Manure. — The  simplest 
way  to  save  liquid  excrement  is  to  provide  plenty  of 
beading  to  absorb  it.  Many  materials  are  usea  for 
bedding  and  these  affect  the  value  of  the  manure. 
It  is  commonly  thought  that  strawy  manure  is  not 
as  valuable  as  clear  manure ;  yet  the  straw  in  manure 
may  have  absorbed  much  of  the  liquid  excrement,  so 
that  strawy  manure  may  be  really  more  valuable 
than  that  which  contains  little  straw. 

The  objects  of  bedding  are  not  only  to  keep  the 
animals  comfortable  and  clean  but  also  to  catch 


\ 


FARM  MANURES  357 

the  urine  and  to  increase  the  bulk  of  the  manure 
so  that  it  can  be  distributed  more  evenly.  Straw 
is  most  generally  used  and  is  quite  satisfactory. 
Marsh  hay,  cornstalks,  leaves,  sawdust  and  shav- 
ings are  used  more  or  less.  The  two  latter  should 
be  used  in  moderate  quantities;  in  large  amounts 
they  lower  the  value  of  the  manure.  Pine  needles 
are  believed  to  injure  the  manure.  Fine,  dry  sand 
or  soil  is,  sometimes  used  to  advantage,  and  oc- 
casionally peat  or  muck.  These  earthy  materials 
have  greater  value  for  bedding  than  strawy  mate- 
rials because  they  absorb  ammonia  gas  as  well  as 
liquids,  and  so  save  nitrogen  and  keep  the  air  of 
the  stable  sweet. 

The  plan  of  collecting  the  liquid  manure  and 
distributing  it  upon  the  fields  by  means  of  a  tank 
with  a  sprinkling  attachment  has  not  been  found 
generally  practicable.  Ordinarily  it  is  more  satis- 
factory to  absorb  the  liquid  manure  with  bedding. 

The  use  of  bedding  will  not  entirely  prevent  the 
loss  of  plant  food  from  the  stable.  There  is  al- 
ways a  considerable  amount  of  ammonia  escaping, 
as  the  sharp  odour  about  stables  bears  evidence. 
This  can  be  prevented  by  using  chemical  ab- 
sorbents which  enter  into  combination  with  the 
ammonia,  making  a  salt  of  ammonia  that  is  not 
volatile.  Land  plaster  (gypsum)  is  most  com- 
monly used  for  this  purpose.  Kainit  and  super- 
phosphate are  used  to  some  extent,  enriching  the 
manure  not  only  with  the  nitrogen  they  eaten  but 
also  with  the  plant  food  they  contain.  These 
materials  should  be  scattered  in  the  stables  at 
the  rate  of  one  to  two  pounds  per  animal 
daily,  and  also  over  the  manure  piles.  Dry 
sand,  earth,  peat  or  muck  answer  quite  well 
for  this  purpose. 


358  SOILS 

AMOUNT   OF   MANURE   MADE    ON   THE   FARM 

The  amount  of  manure  that  will  be  made  during 
a  year  by  a  given  number  of  animals  is  capable  of 
fairly  accurate  calculation.  A  common  estimate  is : 

Horse,  12,000  Ibs.  of  solids,  and  3,000  Ibs.  of  liquids. 

Cow,  20.000   "     "       "         "      8,000  "     " 

Sheep,  760   "     "       "         "         380 * 

Swine,  1,800   "     "       "         "      1,200  "    " 

Another  method,  resulting  from  many  careful 
experiments,  is  to  multiply  the  amount  of  "dry 
matter"  in  the  food  for  one  year  by  2.1  for  the 
horse,  by  3.8  for  the  cow,  by  1.8  for  the  sheep. 
Add  to  these  figures  the  weight  of  bedding  used. 
Thus  if  a  cow  eats  thirty  pounds  of  dry  matter  a 
day  she  will  produce  about  30  x  3.8,  or  one  hundred 
and  fourteen  pounds  of  manure  a  day,  besides  the 
bedding.  The  age  of  the  animals,  tneir  condition 
and  their  food  influence  the  amount  of  manure 
made. 

According  to  Heiden's  rule  for  calculating  man- 
ure, the  following  quantities  of  cow  manure  may  be 
expected  from  feeding  one  ton  of  the  feeds  named: 

GREEN    FEEDS 

Pound* 

Corn  fodder 1,590 

Rye  fodder 1,797 

Red  top 2,465 

Oat  fodder 2,903 

Orchard  grass 2,074 

Timothy 2,942 

Hungarian  grass         2,220 

Red  clover 2,243 

Crimson  clover 1,482 

Alfalfa 2,166 

Cowpeas 1,260 

Soja  beans 2,188 

Corn  Silage 1,605 


FARM  MANURES  359 

DRY   FEEDS 

Pounds 

Corn  fodder 4,439 

Orchard  grass  hay 6,920 

Red  top  hay 6,996 

Timothy  hay         6,282 

Hungarian  grass  hay 7,089 

Red  clover  hay 6,505 

Crimson  clover  hay 7,020 

Alsike  clover  hay 6,935 

Alfalfa  hay 7,035 

Cowpea  hay 6,858 

Soja  bean  hay 6,428 

Millet  hay 6,931 

The  amount  of  plant  food  in  manure  may  also 
be  estimated  with  considerable  accuracy,  if  one 
knows  the  kinds  and  the  amounts  of  foods  that 
the  animal  consumes.  Numerous  digestion  ex- 
periments have  shown  the  amounts  of  the  fer- 
tilising materials  in  various  feeds  and  fodders  that 
are  ordinarily  recovered  in  the  manure.  Knowing 
the  amount  of  each  feed  and  fodder  that 
each  animal  eats,  the  amount  of  potash, 
phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  in  each  food, 
and  the  percentage  of  this  that  is  commonlv 
recovered  in  the  manure,  one  can  tell  how  rich 
the  manure  should  be. 

Most  farms  do  not  produce  enough  manure  to 
dress  the  fields  satisfactorily.  Sometimes  manure 
may  be  bought  to  advantage,  especially  livery- 
staole  manure,  city  street  sweepings,  or  stockyard 
manure.  Ordinarily  it  will  not  pay  to  give  over 
a  dollar  a  ton  for  average  barnyard  or  stable  ma- 
nure, and  not  this  much  if  the  haul  is  long.  If  the 
farm  is  near  a  town,  stable  manure  may  often  be 
obtained  for  the  hauling,  especially  if  the  farmer 
agrees  to  haul  it  away  whenever  necessary. 


360  SOILS 

WHEN   TO   APPLY  MANURES 

No  advice  can  be  given  that  is  generally  ap- 
plicable, but  a  few  suggestions  will  snow  the  great 
diversity  of  practice.  In  general  the  sooner  ma- 
nure is  spread  upon  the  soil  after  it  is  made,  the 
more  will  the  soil  be  benefited.  But  other  con- 
siderations affect  this  point.  The  state  of  decay 
and  the  kind  of  crop  must  be  considered.  Rotted 
manure — that  which  has  partially  decayed — may 
be  applied  to  better  advantage  in  the  spring  than 
fresh  or  "green"  manure.  Rotted  manure  is 
commonly  preferred  for  the  lighter  soils  and  fresh 
manure  for  the  heavier  sons.  Market-garden 
crops,  especially,  prefer  rotted  manure,  chiefly 
because  its  plant  food  is  somewhat  more  quickly 
available  than  that  in  fresh  manure,  and  these 
crops  need  this  to  make  a  quick  start  and  a  very 
rapid  growth.  Gardeners  often  make  manure 
into  a  compost  with  leaves  and  vegetable  and 
animal  refuse  of  all  sorts.  The  material  is  put 
into  a  long,  low,  flat- topped  pile  which  is  turned 
over  and  mixed  several  times.  Ordinarily  it  is 
allowed  to  rot  for  two  years. 

One  of  the  most  common  practices  on  American 
farms  is  to  broadcast  fresh  manure  on  grass  land 
that  is  to  be  plowed  after  the  next  crop  of 
hay.  Another  is  to  manure  heavily  for  corn, 
which  does  not  object  to  large  amounts  of  coarse 
fresh  manure,  and  to  follow  corn  with  a  crop  that 
prefers  to  have  the  manure  quite  well  rotted,  as  it 
will  be  after  having  lain  in  the  soil  a  year. 

Spreading  Manure  in  Winter. — On  a  majority 
of  farms  most  of  the  manure  that  is  available  is 
produced  during  the  winter  months  when  the 
animals  are  housed.  Farm  work  is  usually  light 


FARM  MANURES  361 

at  that  time  of  the  year  and  it  would  be  a  great 
advantage  to  spread  the  manure  frequently  during 
the  winter  rather  than  to  wait  until  early  spring, 
when  roads,  lanes  and  fields  are  miry  and  when  other 
farm  work  demands  attention.  But  some  farmers 
fail  to  spread  manure  in  winter  because  they  think 
much  of  the  plant  food  in  it  will  be  washed  away. 
Usually  the  danger  of  loss  is  far  less  than  is  feared. 
Manure  spread  upon  the  land  in  winter  loses 
little  of  its  value  unless  the  land  is  quite  steep  so 
that  there  is  considerable  surface  wasning.  If  the 
land  is  fairly  level  there  need  be  no  appreciable 
loss.  Manures  spread  at  this  season  do  not  fer- 
ment, because  the  temperature  is  too  low.  Man- 
ure spread  in  winter  should  be  applied  to  land  on 
whicn  plants  are  growing,  as  on  sod  or  on  cover 
crops.  It  is  especially  desirable  to  manure  in 
winter  land  that  is  to  be  planted  to  Indian  corn. 
Sometimes  heavy  snows  make  winter  spreading 
impracticable. 

HOW   MUCH   MANURE   TO   USE 

In  applying  manure  the  amount  of  the  different 
plant  foods  in  it  should  be  kept  in  mind;  also 
whether  it  is  being  used  chiefly  to  improve  the  tex- 
ture of  the  soil  or  to  supply  plant  food.  The 
nature  of  the  soil  and  the  crop  are  other  deciding 
points. 

Manures  are  often  applied  too  freely.  Rarely 
is  it  profitable  to  apply  over  40  two-horse  loads  per 
acre,  and  25  to  35  loads  is  about  the  maximum 
amount  under  most  conditions.  Ordinarily  farm- 
ers use  from  4  to  10  cords  of  cow  manure  per  acre; 
market  gardeners,  however,  who  grow  plants  under 
special  conditions  so  that  their  methods  cannot 


362  SOILS 

be  compared  with  the  methods  of  general 
farming,  often  use  30  to  50  cords  per  acre. 
A  cord  of  fresh  cow  manure  weighs  about 
three  tons. 

Light  Dressings  Desirable. — If  a  certain  field 
is  in  special  neea  of  the  mellowing  and  enriching 
effect  of  manure,  a  heavy  dressing  may  be  given; 
but  usually  it  is  more  profitable  to  spread  30  cords 
of  manure  over  10  acres,  if  30  cords  is  all  that  can 
be  had,  than  to  put  ail  of  it  on  5  acres.  A  moder- 
ate increase  in  yield  on  10  acres  is  better  than  a 
heavy  increase  on  5  acres.  The  farther  a  field  is 
from  the  barn,  the  less  likely  it  will  pay  to  haul  a 
heavy  dressing  of  manure  to  it;  for  manure  is 
bulky  and  expensive  to  handle.  It  may  be 
more  practicable  to  put  humus  into  such 
fields  by  green-manuring,  and  perhaps  commer- 
cial fertilisers  can  be  used  there  to  advan- 
tage. 

Although  manure  is  a  complete  fertiliser,  it  is 
not  well  (balanced  since  it  usually  contains  much 
more  nitrogen  than  either  of  the  other  two  plant 
foods.  An  abundance  of  nitrogen  promotes  a  very 
vigorous  growth  of  leaves  and  stems,  but  it  is  not 
so  valuable  for  developing  seeds  and  fruits.  Too 
heavy  applications  of  manure  may  make  the  wheat 
lodge  or  the  fruit  soft.  For  this  reason  if  only  a 
limited  amount  of  manure  is  available,  it  is  best 
to  use  it  most  freely  on  the  crops  that  are  valued 
chiefly  for  a  very  vigorous  growth  of  stem  or  leaf, 
as  the  grasses,  clover,  most  garden  vegetables,  and 
forage  crops.  Commercial  fertilisers  should  be  used 
on  manured  soil  to  supply  the  plant  food  that 
manure  is  deficient  in  and  so  balance  it;  as 
by  using  superphosphate  on  land  manured  for 
cotton. 


111.     MANURE  PILED  IN  THE  FIELD,  TO  RE  SPREAD  LATER 

This  is  often  more  convenient  than  spreading  direct  from  the  wagon,  but  it  must  not 

be  left  in  piles  long 


112.    SPREADING  MANURE  FROM  THE  WAGON  ON  CORN  STUBBLE 
A  manure  spreader  does  the  work  more  evemy  but  not  more  cheaply 


113.    BUYING  PLANT  FOOD  IN  SACKS 

This  is  practicable  only  to  supplement  home  resources.     Be  sure  you  know  what 
kind  of  actual  plant  food  is  in  the  bag,  and  how  much.     Buy- 
by  analysis,  not  by  brand 


fMBB^H^m 
DOME  BY  MACHINERY. 

*ww    F-ouNDS 

,  LOW  GRADE  BLOOD  AND  BONE 

PUT  UP  BY  THE 

[E  0.  PAINTER  FERTILIZER  COMPANY 

JACKSONVILLE, 


114.    A  FERTILISER  TAG  TAKEN  FROM  A  SACK,  SHOWING  THE 
GUARANTEED  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  FERTILISER 

Some  of  the  analyses  printed  on  fertiliser  tags,  while  perhaps  true,  arc  apt  to  be 

misleading.     The  farmer  should  be  able  to  figure  out  from  the  tag 

how  much  he  could  afford  to  pay  for  the  fertiliser 


FARM  MANURES  363 

HOW  TO   APPLY   MANURE 

The  most  practicable  method  in  many  cases, 
especially  in  winter,  is  to  spread  it  direct  from  the 
wagon,  cart,  or  sled.  Fresh  manure  distributed 
from  wagons  in  winter  is  not  apt  to  be  spread  very 
evenly  and  should  be  scattered  in  spring  with  a 
brush  drag.  The  manure  may  be  dumped  in 
piles,  which  are  spread  later.  The  merit  of  this 
plan  is  that  it  economises  team  work,  so  the  rela- 
tive cost  of  team  and  hand  labour  must  be  consid- 
ered. If  the  manure  is  dumped  in  pi1  t  should 
be  spread  very  soon;  otherwise  me  ground  on 
which  it  is  piled  becomes  over-rich.  Some  farmers 
leave  manure  in  the  field  in  piles  for  several  months ; 
their  crops  are  decidedly  "spotted"  for  two  or 
three  seasons  thereafter. 

Manure  spreaders  are  of  little  advantage  to 
the  average  farmer,  chiefly  because  they  carry  such 
a  small  load  in  proportion  to  the  draft,  and  their 
expense.  They  do,  however,  distribute  manure 
more  evenly  than  it  is  usually  done  by  hand. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

COMMERCIAL   FERTILISERS 

ONE  OF  the  most  striking  features  of 
American  agriculture  is  the  extraordinary 
rapidity  with  which  the  commercial  fertil- 
iser industry  has  developed.  Bone,  wood  ashes 
and  a  few  other  natural  products  have  been 
in  use  for  centuries,  but  the  first  use  of  artifi- 
cial fertilisers — the  "phosphates"  of  the  modern 
farmer — was  about  1845.  Not  till  after  1860,  how- 
ever, were  they  used  to  any  great  extent.  The 
annual  fertiliser  bill  of  American  farmers  to-day 
is  close  to  fifty  millions  of  dollars.  This  is  paid 
mostly  by  the  farmers  of  about  twenty  of  the 
Eastern  States,  for  commercial  fertilisers  are  used 
very  little  in  most  of  the  Western  States. 

In  round  numbers,  we  have  paid  about  a  quarter 
of  a  billion  of  dollars  for  artificial  fertilisers  in  the 
last  five  years.  In  no  other  country  are  commercial 
fertilisers  used  to  the  extent  they  are  here.  Yet 
only  a  small  per  cent,  of  our  farm  soils  have  shown 
the  need  of  fertilising.  When  the  millions  of  acres 
of  rich,  Western  farm  lands  have  passed  through  the 
same  history  of  gradual  decline  as  those  in  the  East 
— as  they  certainly  will — what  will  our  fertiliser  bill 
be,  a  hundred  years  hence  ?  Where  is  this  enormous 
and  rapidly  increasing  expense  account  leading  us  ? 
Are  the  results  secured  by  the  present  lavish 
use  of  artificial  fertilisers  sufficient  to  justify  us  in 
continuing  the  practice  or  is  there  a  cheaper  way 
of  solving  the  problem  of  declining  fertility  ? 

364 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS          365 

Changed  Economic  Conditions. — The  rapid 
growth  of  the  fertiliser  trade  is  not  necessarily  an 
indication  that  American  farmers  have  preferred 
artificial  fertilisers  to  farm  manures.  Since  1865 
we  have  passed  through  great  economic  and  social 
changes  which  have  favoured  the  use  of  artificial 
fertilisers.  The  most  important  of  these,  as  related 
to  agriculture,  is  the  rapid  growth  of  cities.  This 
has  developed  the  great  market- garden,  fruit  and 
trucking  interests  which  are  the  chief  users  of 
commercial  fertilisers.  Market-garden  and  truck 
farmers,  many  of  whom  are,  of  necessity,  located 
near  cities  on  high-priced  land,  often  find  it  im- 
practicable to  keep  stock  or  give  up  the  use  of  their 
expensive  land  for  green-manuring,  even  for  a  short 
season.  They  must  keep  a  money-crop  growing 
upon  it  every  day  of  the  season.  With  them,  the 
soil  is  merely  the  medium  for  transforming  the 
plant  food  which  they  spread  upon  it  into  merchant- 
able crops.  The  modern  market  garden  near  a 
large  city  more  nearly  resembles  a  manufacturing 
establishment  than  a  farm.  Under  such  con- 
ditions, the  use  of  artificial  fertilisers,  as  well  as 
purchased  manures,  is  probably  the  most  prac- 
ticable course  to  pursue.  There  are  also  many 
instances  where  artificial  fertilisers  are  seemingly 
almost  indispensable — as,  for  example,  in  the  cul- 
ture of  pineapples  on  the  almost  barren  sands  of 
eastern  Florida. 

The  staple-crop  farmer,  however,  has  not  these 
peculiar  economic  conditions  to  contend  with. 
The  time-honoured  methods  of  maintaining  soil 
fertility  by  green-manuring,  by  a  rotation  of  crops 
and  by  the  use  of  animal  manures — he  can  use  if  he 
chooses.  Unquestionably  commercial  fertilisers 
will  be  used  more  and  more  extensively  in  market 


366  SOILS 

gardening  and  in  the  culture  of  special  crops  and 
on  certain  soils;  but  the  indications  are  that  their 
use  in  general  farm  practice  as  a  chief  source  of 
fertility  is  on  the  wane,  while  the  use  of  the  more 
natural  resources,  green-manuring  and  farm  ma- 
nures, is  on  the  increase.  Often  artificial  fertilisers 
have  been  used  to  remedy  temporarily  the  effects 
of  poor  texture,  due  to  mismanagement.  Com- 
mercial fertilisers,  if  used  at  all  in  general  farming, 
should  be  applied  sparingly  and  as  a  supplement 
to  natural  resources,  not  as  the  main  source  of 
fertility. 

WHAT    COMMERCIAL   FERTILISERS   ARE    MADE    OF 

The  term  is  usually  applied  simply  to  materials 
which  contain  the  essential  plant  foods — nitrogen, 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  These  are  found  in 
many  materials:  some  are  mineral  products,  as 
nitrate  of  soda,  muriate  of  potash,  phosphate  rock; 
some  are  animal  products,  as  dried  blood  and 
tankage,  which  are  wastes  from  the  slaughter 
houses,  and  boneblack,  which  is  a  refuse  in  refining 
sugar.  These  raw  materials  are  combined  in 
various  ways,  and  in  different  proportions,  per- 
haps treated  with  acids.  One  brand  of  commercial 
fertiliser  may  be  made  of  two  or  three  of  these  raw 
materials ;  another  may  contain  many  kinds. 

Complete  and  Incomplete  Fertilisers. — Com- 
mercial fertilisers  are  either  "complete"  or  "in- 
complete." A  complete  fertiliser  contains  all  three 
of  the  essential  plant  foods ;  an  incomplete  fertiliser 
contains  but  one  or  two.  Most  fertilisers  sold  in 
this  country  are  complete.  The  reason  for  this, 
from  the  manufacturer's  point  of  view,  is  obvious. 
He  knows  little  or  nothing  of  the  kind  of  soil  upon 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       367 

which  the  fertiliser  will  be  applied,  or  of  its  needs 
as  regards  plant  food.  In  order  to  be  sure  that  it 
will  be  of  some  benefit  on  all  soils,  then,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  it  to  contain  all  three  plant  foods.  But,  as 
will  be  emphasised  later  on,  very  few  soils  really 
need  additions  of  all  three;  some  need  only  one. 
In  such  cases  the  use  of  a  complete  fertiliser  is 
wasteful. 

Many  Brands. — Most  fertiliser  manufacturers 
sell  many  brands,  or  different  combinations  of  raw 
materials.  Some  firms  sell  as  many  as  forty-five 
brands,  each  one,  presumably,  different  from  all 
the  others,  and  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  cer- 
tain soils  or  certain  crops.  Thus  we  have  Smith's 
Mortgage-lifter  Fertiliser,  Jones'  Sure-crop  Fer- 
tiliser, Brown's  Special  Potato  Fertiliser,  White's 
Corn  Fertiliser,  and  so  on.  In  one  year  1,112 
brands  of  fertilisers  were  sold  in  the  State  of  New 
York  alone.  In  most  states  the  number  is  from 
150  to  300. 

State  Supervision  of  the  Fertiliser  Trade. — How 
shall  the  farmer  know  which  of  these  many  brands 
to  choose?  Some  of  them  are  just  what  his  soil 
and  crops  need;  some  would  be  almost  worthless 
to  him.  The  national  and  state  governments  have 
now  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  farmer  in  this 
important  matter.  State  laws  specify  that  no  fer- 
tiliser manufacturer  or  dealer  shall  sell  any  brand 
of  fertiliser  in  any  state,  either  direct  from  the 
factory  or  through  an  agent,  until  the  brand  has 
first  been  registered  with  some  appointed  authority, 
usually  the  Director  of  the  State  Experiment 
Station.  The  manufacturer  is  further  required  to 
put  a  tag  on  each  bag  of  fertiliser,  giving  an  anal- 
ysis of  its  contents  specifying  the  amount  of  each  of 

w  A  v  O 

the  essential  plant  foods  it  contains.     Every  year 


368  SOILS 

the  Experiment  Station  of  each  state  in  which  fer- 
tilisers are  used  extensively,  collects  samples  of  the 
fertilisers  offered  for  sale  in  that  state,  and  analyses 
each  one  to  see  if  it  contains  as  much  plant  food  as 
the  manufacturer  claims  that  it  does.  If  it  is  found 
to  contain  less  than  the  guarantee  on  the  tag 
specifies,  the  manufacturer  is  subject  to  prosecution. 

The  effect  of  this  state  supervision  of  the  fer- 
tiliser trade  has  been  very  satisfactory.  The 
general  standard  of  the  business  has  been  raised. 
Each  year  the  Experiment  station  of  each  state 
publishes  a  bulletin  listing  all  the  brands  of  fertilisers 
that  have  been  registered  for  that  year,  also  the 
guaranteed  analysis  of  each  as  shown  by  the 
manufacturer's  tag,  and  the  actual  value,  as  shown 
by  analyses  at  the  Experiment  station.  Farmers 
who  use  fertilisers  should  get  these  bulletins. 

Studying  Fertiliser  Tags. — Some  of  the  guaran- 
tees printed  on  fertiliser  tags  are  misleading.  The 
real  analysis  is  sometimes  obscured  by  adding  to  it 
statements  of  valueless  materials  that  the  fertil- 
iser contains,  and  by  repeating  the  real  analysis  in 
another  form,  thus  making  the  buyer  who  is  not 
skilled  in  such  matters  think  he  is  getting  more 
for  his  money  than  he  really  does.  Roberts  states 
that  the  following  guarantee  was  on  a  fertiliser  sold 
in  New  York: 

Per  cent. 

Total  bone  phosphate 30  to  35 

Yielding  phosphoric  acid 14  to  16 

Soluble  bone  phosphate 22  to  26 

Yielding  water-soluble  phosphoric  acid      .      .  10  to  12 

Total  available  bone  phosphate 26  to  30 

Available  phosphoric  acid 12  to  14 

Insoluble  bone  phosphate 2  to  4 

Yielding  insoluble  phosphoric  acid        .      .      .       1  to  3 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS      369 

What  a  lot  of  dust-raising!  Doubtless  it  is  all 
true;  and  the  manufacturer  nas  complied  with  the 
law  that  requires  him  to  state  on  the  tag  the  amount 
of  plant  food  contained  in  the  fertiliser.  But  the 
buyer  wants  to  know  just  one  thing — how  much 
available  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen 
the  fertiliser  contains.  This  tag  should  have 
read? 

Percent. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid 10 

Reverted  phosphoric  acid 2 

That  is  all  there  is  in  it  of  value  to  the  farmer. 
The  most  reliable  manufacturers  print  on  their  tags 
a  bare  statement  of  the  amount  of  actual  plant 
food  the  fertiliser  contains. 

Repetitions  in  Guarantees. — Another  fertiliser 
tag  reads: 

Per  cent. 

1.  Ammonia 3  to  5 

2.  Available  phosphoric  acid 11  to  13 

3.  Total  phosphoric  acid 15  to  19 

4.  Total  bone  phosphate 27  to  30 

5.  Actual  potash 12  to  14 

6.  Muriate  of  Potash 18  to  22 

There  are  several  repetitions  in  this  complete 
fertiliser.  Contrary  to  the  common  idea  among 
farmers,  ammonia  is  not  nitrogen;  it  is  only  four- 
fifths  nitrogen,  the  other  fifth  being  hydrogen, 
which  has  no  value  as  a  fertiliser.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  multiply  the  3  per  cent,  of  ammonia 
by  .82,  the  actual  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  am- 
monia. This  shows  that  there  is  2.46  per  cent,  of 
the  plant  food  nitrogen  in  this  fertiliser,  instead 
of  3  per  cent.  There  is  11  per  cent,  of  available 


370  SOILS 

phosphoric  acid  in  this  fertiliser,  as  shown  in  No.  2, 
out  of  the  total  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  it  con- 
tains, 15  per  cent.,  indicated  in  No.  3.  We  are 
not  concerned  about  the  bone  phosphate  in  No.  4, 
because  this  is  merely  a  repetition  of  the  figures 
given  for  phosphoric  acid;  46  per  cent,  of  bone 
phosphate  is  actual  phosphoric  acid,  and  this  has 
already  been  stated  in  Nos.  2  and  3.  There  is 
12  per  cent,  of  actual  potash,  which  is  that  found  in 
the  muriate  of  potash  and  repeated  in  No.  6.  The 
guarantee  of  this  fertiliser  might  better  be: 

Per  Cent. 

Nitrogen 3 

Available  phosphoric  acid .11 

(furnished  in  bone  phosphate) 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 4 

Potash 12 

(furnished  in  muriate  of  potash) 

Always  take  the  lowest  per  cent,  given.  Rarely 
does  a  fertiliser  contain  more  than  the  minimum 
amount  of  plant  food  stated  in  the  guarantee. 

THE   FORMS    OF    PHOSPHORIC    ACID 

The  way  in  which  the  amount  of  phosphoric 
acid  is  stated  is  one  of  the  most  common  sources 
of  confusion.  The  nitrogen  and  potash  in  com- 
mercial fertilisers  are  mostly  soluble  and  available 
to  plants.  But  the  phosphoric  acid  in  fertilisers 
is  more  complex.  It  is  usually  not  alone  but  com- 
bined with  different  amounts  of  lime,  making 
"phosphates  of  lime"  or  "phosphates."  On  fer- 
tiliser tags  one  will  find  these  terms:  "available 
phosphoric  acid,"  "soluble  phosphoric  acid,"  "in- 
soluble phosphoric  acid,"  "reverted  phosphoric 
acid." 

"Available"  and  "soluble"  phosphoric  acid 
are  the  same,  for  only  plant  food  that  is  soluble  in 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       371 

soil  water  can  be  available,  or  useful  to  plants. 
This  valuable  kind  of  phosphoric  acid  has  but  one 
part  of  lime  with  it  and  two  parts  of  water: 

Lime  ^^ 

Water— ^—Phosphoric  acid. 

Water^ 

This  is  the  kind  of  phosphoric  acid  that  is  found 
in  superphosphates.  It  quickly  dissolves  in  water 
and  plants  can  use  it  at  once.  In  some  guarantees 
it  is  called  " water-soluble  phosphoric  acid." 

"Insoluble  phosphoric  acid,"  on  the  other  hand, 
has  three  parts  of  lime  to  one  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and  has  no  water,  thus: 

Phosphoric  acid. 

This  is  the  kind  of  phosphoric  acid  found  in  fresh 
bones  and  in  the  various  "rock  phosphates"  taken 
from  the  mines.  Since  it  cannot  be  dissolved  in 
water,  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  has  no  value 
whatever  as  a  plant  food  unless  it  can  be  changed 
into  soluble  phosphoric  acid.  As  bones  rot  in  the 
ground  the  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  in  them 
slowly  becomes  soluble,  losing  part  of  its  lime. 
A  quicker  way  to  change  this  into  plant  food  is  to 
treat  it  with  acids,  which  is  the  way  superphos- 
phates are  made. 

In  studying  fertiliser  guarantees,  remember 
that  the  "insoluble  phosphoric  acid"  is  not  plant 
food  and  cannot  become  so  until  it  has  been  made 
soluble.  When  applied  to  the  soil,  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid  may  gradually  become  soluble. 
Hence  it  is  customary,  when  figuring  on  the  value 
of  a  fertiliser,  to  count  the  insoluble  phosphoric 
acid  as  worth  about  one-half  as  much  as  the 
soluble.  Some  chemists,  however,  do  not  con- 
sider it  worth  even  that  much. 


372  SOILS 

The  "reverted  phosphoric  acid*'  on  fertiliser 
tags  is  intermediate  between  the  soluble  and  the 
insoluble,  thus: 

Lime  ^^^ 

Lime  —  —  ^Phosphoric  acid 
" 


Reverted  means  turned  back;  this  is  phosphoric 
acid  which  was  once  soluble  but  is  gradually  be- 
coming insoluble,  since  more  lime  has  been  added 
to  it.  If  soluble  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soil  is  not 
quickly  used  by  plants  it  tends  to  revert.  In  this 
condition  it  is  not  quite  as  readily  used  by  plants. 
However,  the  reverted  phosphoric  acid  given  in 
fertiliser  analyses  may  be  considered  about  as  valu- 
able as  the  soluble.  Sometimes  a  tag  will  read 
"  phosphoric  acid  soluble  in  ammonium  citrate." 
This  is  reverted  phosphoric  acid,  ammonium 
citrate  being  the  weak  acid  used  by  chemists 
to  dissolve  it. 

Points  that  the  fertiliser  buyer  should  remember 
when  studying  guarantees  are: 

1.  Look  for  the  percentage  of  nitrogen.     If  the 
analysis  gives  the  percentage  of  ammonia,  remem- 
ber   that    it    is    but    four-fifths   nitrogen.     If  the 
analysis    says    "equivalent    to    nitrate    of    soda," 
remember  that  but  15  per  cent,  of  nitrate  of  soda 
is  the  plant  food  nitrogen. 

2.  Look  for  the  percentage  of  potash.     If  the 
tag  says,  "equivalent  to  sulphate  of  potash,"  or 
"equivalent  to  muriate  of  potash,"  remember  that 
but  half  of  sulphate  or  muriate  of  potash  is  the 
plant-food  potash. 

3.  Look   for   water-soluble   phosphoric   acid   or 
available   phosphoric  acid.     Insoluble   phosphoric 
acid  has  half  value;    reverted  phosphoric  acid  is 
slightly  less  valuable  than  soluble. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       373 

4.  Look  out  for  re-statements  in  the  fertiliser 
tags,  thus: 

Per  cent. 

1.  Bearing  total  bone  phosphate     .      .      .      .     30  to  35 

2.  Yielding  phosphoric  acid 14  to  16 

3.  Soluble  bone  phosphate 22  to  26 

4.  Yielding  water-soluble  phosphoric  acid.      .     10  to  12 

5.  Total  available  bone  phosphate  .      .      .      .     26  to  30 

Statement  No.  4  is  the  only  one  worth  considering; 
the  others  are  mainly  re-statements  in  another 
form.  "Equivalent  to"  or  "Yielding"  usually 
means  that  the  plant  food  in  the  fertiliser  has  al- 
ready been  stated  in  the  guarantee  in  another 
form.  To  convert  one  material  into  another, 
when  there  is  repetition,  use  the  following  table: 

To  convert  the  guarantee  of  Multiply  by 

Ammonia   .      .      .      into  Nitrogen 82 

Nitrate  of  soda      .        "    Nitrogen 16 

Bone  phosphate    .        "     Phosphoric  acid    .      .      .    .45 

Muriate  of  potash         "     Potash 63 

Sulphate  of  potash        "    Potash        54 

5.  Pay  no  attention  to  anything  in  the  guarantee 
that  is  not  plant  food.     The  amounts  of  "mois- 
ture,"   "silicic    acid,"    "carbonic    acid,"    "mag- 
nesia," "alumic  oxid,"  "ferric  oxid,"   and   other 
materials   that   the   fertiliser   contains    are    of   no 
interest  or  value  to  the  buyer. 

CALCULATING   THE    VALUE    OF   A    FERTILISER   FROM 
THE    ANALYSIS 

The  value  of  a  commercial  fertiliser  is  based 
solely  upon  the  amount  of  plant  foot  that  it  con- 
tains. Animal  and  green  manures  are  often  quite 
valuable  for  their  effect  upon  the  condition  or 
"heart"  of  the  soil;  but  commercial  fertilisers 
have  little  or  no  value  in  this  respect.  When 


374  SOILS 

buying  a  fertiliser  the  farmer  should  consider  just 
two  things;  the  amount  of  plant  food  in  it  and 
what  it  costs  per  pound  in  this  form.  It  is  a 
simple  matter  to  estimate  the  value  of  a  com- 
mercial fertiliser  from  its  guarantee,  provided  the 
guarantee  is  not  too  confusing.  Suppose  a  fer- 
tiliser is  offered  with  the  following  guarantee: 

Per  cent. 

1.  Ammonia 2  to  4 

2.  Available  phosphoric  acid 10  to  12 

3.  Total  phosphoric  acid 14  to  17 

4.  Equivalent  to  bone  phosphate     .      .      .      .  30  to  37 

5.  Potash 9  to  11 

6.  Equivalent  to  sulphate  of  potash      .      .      .  16  to  20 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  draw  a  line  through 
statements  4  and  6,  because  4  is  a  repetition  of 
2  and  3,  while  6  is  a  restatement  of  5.  The 
ammonia  must  now  be  reduced  to  nitrogen  by  multi- 
plying 2  per  cent,  by  .82,  giving  1.64,  the  percent- 
age of  actual  nitrogen  in  the  fertiliser.  Since 
there  is  14  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  fer- 
tiliser and  but  10  per  cent,  of  this  is  available,  the 
inference  is  that  the  other  4  per  cent,  is  insoluble. 
A  simplified  statement  of  the  contents  of  this 
fertiliser  is: 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 1.64 

Available  phosphoric  acid 10 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 4 

Potash 9 

The  number  of  pounds  of  each  plant  food  in  a  ton 
of  this  fertiliser  is  then  determined: 

1.64%  of  2,000  lbs.=  32.8  Ibs.  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton. 
10%  of  2,000  lbs.=200  Ibs.  of    available     phosphoric 

acid  in  a  ton. 

4%  of  2,000  lbs.=  80  Ibs.  of  insoluble  acid  in  a  ton. 
9%  of  2,000  Ibs.=rl80  Ibs.  of  potash  in  a  ton. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        375 

The  trade  values  of  the  different  plant  foods  in 
commercial  fertilisers  vary  slightly  from  year  to 
year  but  generally  a  pound  of  nitrogen  is  worth 
seventeen  cents;  a  pound  of  potash  four  cents;  a 
pound  of  available  or  water-soluble  phosphoric 
acid,  four  and  a  half  cents;  this  is  what  the 
several  plant  foods  can  be  bought  for  in  raw  fer- 
tilising materials.  The  valuation  of  this  partic- 
ular fertiliser  is: 

Per  ton 

Nitrogen,  32.8  Ibs.  @  17  cents  per  Ib.    .      .      .     $  5.57 
Available  phosphoric  acid,  200  Ibs.  @  4^  cents 

per  Ib 9.00 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  80  Ibs.  @  2j  cents  per  Ib.  1.80 

Potash,  180  Ibs.  @  4  cents  per  Ib 7.20 

Total  value  per  ton       $23.57 

Such  a  fertiliser  may  cost  $36  per  ton,  or  more. 
The  difference  between  this  sum  and  $23.57,  the 
actual  value  of  the  plant  food  in  it,  covers  the  cost 
of  mixing,  bagging,  handling  and  the  profit.  On 
an  average  it  costs  about  $8  per  ton  to  mix,  bag, 
and  handle  a  ton  of  fertiliser  before  it  finally 
reaches  the  buyer,  and  allow  a  fair  profit  for  all 
concerned.  If  $8  is  added  to  the  actual  plant  food 
value  of  a  fertiliser,  as  determined  from  the 
guaranteed  analysis,  the  buyer  knows  what  would 
be  a  fair  price  to  pay  for  the  fertiliser. 

LOW-GRADE    FERTILISERS    EXPENSIVE 

To  meet  the  demand  for  a  cheap  fertiliser — a 
lot  of  fertiliser  for  the  money — many  manufac- 
turers sell  "low-grade  fertilisers"  for  $15  to  $26 
per  ton.  But  it  costs  as  much  to  mix,  bag,  and 
handle  a  ton  of  fertiliser  containing  $15  w^orth  of 
plant  food  as  it  does  a  ton  of  fertiliser  containing 
$30  worth  of  plant  food.  Furthermore,  the  cost 


376  SOILS 

of  applying  it  to  the  land  is  greater,  since  more 
has  to  be  applied  to  give  a  certain  result.  Usually 
plant  food  can  be  bought  more  cheaply  in  a  con- 
centrated, or  "high-grade  fertiliser"  than  in  a  low 
grade.  Even  though  a  low-grade  fertiliser  may 
contain  some  high-grade  materials,  as  sulphate 
of  potash  and  nitrate  of  soda,  the  plant  food  in  it 
usually  costs  more  because  this  is  weighed  down 
with  so  much  useless  bulk.  The  farmer  cannot 
afford  to  pay  for  bulk.  Every  pound  of  material 
in  a  ton  of  fertiliser  which  is  not  plant  food 
adds  to  the  price  which  the  farmer  must  pay  for 
the  plant  food.  Usually  the  more  concentrated 
the  fertiliser,  and  hence  the  higher  the  price  per 
ton,  the  cheaper  it  is.  But  one  cannot  make  a 
mistake  in  buying  a  low-grade  fertiliser  if  he  figures 
on  the  guarantee. 

ADVANTAGES  OF    HOME-MIXING  OF   FERTILISERS 

It  is  a  convenience  to  buy  fertilisers  mixed  and 
ready  to  apply,  provided  the  buyer  examines  the 
guarantee  and  finds  that  he  can  buy  plant  food  in 
this  fertiliser  about  as  cheaply  as  though  he  bought 
the  raw  materials  and  mixed  them  himself;  and 
provided,  too,  that  this  brand  of  fertiliser  contains 
the  several  kinds  of  plant  food  in  the  right  pro- 
portions for  the  soil  and  the  crop  to  be  grown. 
J3ut  this  is  not  usually  the  case.  Few  farm  soils 
need  applications  of  all  three  plant  foods;  many 
need  but  one.  Many  brands  of  commercial  fer- 
tilisers contain  all  three  and  the  farmer  may  be 
buying  plant  food  that  his  soil  does  not  need,  and 
so  wasting  his  money. 

The  raw  materials  out  of  which  commercial  fer- 
tilisers are  made,  may  be  bought  and  mixed  on  the 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       377 

farm.  There  are  several  advantages  in  doing 
this  as  compared  with  buying  commercial  brands. 
The  most  important  one  is  that  of  being  able  to 
use  but  one  or  two  of  the  plant  foods,  as  is  found 
necessary,  and  to  gauge  the  proportions  of  each 
to  suit  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  the  crop.  There 
is  also  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  plant  food,  because  the 
raw  materials  are  mostly  concentrated,  and  there 
is  less  expense  in  handling  them.  Added  to  this 
is  the  difficulty  of  always  determining  with  absolute 
certainty  the  exact  amount  of  plant  food  in  a  brand 

of  commercial  fertiliser  owing  to  the  ambiguous 

i-         f  & 

wording  ot  many  guarantees. 

On  me  other  hand,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to 
buy  these  raw  materials;  they  are  not  so  generally 
distributed  over  the  country,  as  brands  of  mixed 
fertilisers.  Again,  the  mixed  fertilisers  are  apt 
to  be  ground  more  finely  than  the  unmixed.  If 
a  man  uses  but  little  fertiliser,  it  is  likely  that  he 
will  find  it  more  expedient  to  buy  a  commercial 
brand;  but  if  he  uses  a  considerable  amount  it 
may  be  cheaper  for  him  to  buy  plant  food  in  the 
raw  materials,  not  mixed.  Most  fertilizer  dealers 
sell  the  raw  materials  as  well  as  mixed  fertilisers. 

The  following  raw  materials  are  most  com- 
monly used: 

SOURCES   OF   NITROGEN 

Nitrogen  is  the  most  costly  of  the  three  plant 
foods.  For  this  reason  special  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  means  of  producing  it  on  the  farm, 
as  discussed  in  the  two  preceding  chapters.  The 
chief  commercial  sources  fall  into  two  classes: 
the  "nitrates,"  which  are  salts;  and  "organic 
nitrogen,"  which  is  the  nitrogen  in  plant  and 


378  SOILS 

animal  materials,  as  cottonseed  meal,  dried  blood, 
etc.  Plants  can  feed  on  a  nitrate  but  not  on 
organic  nitrogen.  It  is  necessary  for  the  plant  or 
animal  product  to  thoroughly  decay,  during  which 
process  the  organic  nitrogen  in  it  is  changed  into 
a  nitrate,  before  plants  are  able  to  use  this  kind  of 
food.  This  shows  the  value  of  knowing  the  source 
of  the  different  plant  foods  in  a  fertiliser. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  (Chili  Saltpetre),  is  the  chief 
commercial  form  of  nitrogen  as  a  nitrate.  Large 
deposits  of  this  salt  are  found  in  the  arid  sections 
of  South  America.  It  contains  from  15.5  to  16 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  dissolved 
in  soil  water  almost  immediately  and  becomes  at 
once  available  as  plant  food.  For  this  reason  it 
should  not  be  applied  to  land  until  the  crop  is 
planted,  or  just  before.  It  is  especially  valuable 
for  giving  crops  a  quick  start,  and  for  promoting 
a  luxuriant  leaf  and  stem  growth. 

Dried  Blood  is  collected  from  slaughter  houses. 
Red  blood  contains  12  to  14  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
and  black  blood  6  to  12  per  cent.  This  material 
decays  very  quickly  in  the  soil,  so  that  its  plant 
food  is  quickly  available  for  crops.  It  is  one  of 
the  best  sources  of  nitrogen. 

Cottonseed  Meal  usually  contains  7  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  together  with  1^  to  2  per  cent,  each  of 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  The  nitrogen  in  it 
is  as  quickly  available  to  plants  as  that  in  dried 
blood.  This  material  can  often  be  used  to  best 
advantage,  however,  by  feeding  it  to  stock  and 
recovering  most  of  the  nitrogen  in  manure. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  is  a  by-product  in  the 
manufacture  of  boneblack,  illuminating  gas  and 
coke.  It  usually  contains  about  20  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  being  the  most  concentrated  source  of 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        379 

this  plant  food.  The  nitrogen  in  it  is  nearly  as 
quickly  available  to  plants  as  that  in  nitrate  of 
soda.  It  should  not  be  mixed  with  muriate  of 
potash,  as  the  muriate  causes  a  loss  of  ammonia. 
Less  important  sources  of  nitrogen  are  the  fol- 
lowing animal  products:  hoof  meal,  dry  ground 
fish,  tankage,  Peruvian  and  other  guanos,  horn 
and  hoof  meal,  wool  and  hair  waste,  dried  meat  or 
meal;  and  two  vegetable  products,  linseed  meal 
and  castor  pomace.  These  materials  are  usually 
obtained  with  greater  difficulty  and  are  less 
valuable  for  the  farmer  unless  he  is  so  situated 
that  he  can  buy  them  advantageously.  The 
amount  of  plant  food  in  each  of  these  is  given 
in  the  Appendix. 

SOURCES    OF    PHOSPHORIC    ACID 

The  principal  sources  of  phosphoric  acid  are 
phosphate  rocks  and  bones.  In  most  cases  the 
phosphoric  acid  is  in  combination  with  lime,  mak- 
ing a  phosphate  of  lime.  Only  a  fertiliser  that 
contains  phosphoric  acid  is  a  "phosphate," 
but  this  term  is  often  applied  by  farmers  to 
all  fertilisers.  For  many  years  bones  were  the 
main  source  of  phosphoric  acid  and  they  are 
still  largely  used. 

Raw  Bone  is  that  which  has  not  been  treated 
in  any  way,  except  by  grinding.  It  should 
contain  about  4  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  22 
per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid ;  but  only  5  to  7  per 
cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is  soluble,  the 
remainder  being  insoluble.  For  this  reason  the 
phosphoric  acid  in  raw  bone  is  but  slowly  avail- 
able to  plants,  its  usefulness  extending  over 
several  years. 


380  SOILS 

Boiled  and  Steamed  Bone. — Most  of  the  bone  used 
as  fertiliser  has  been  boiled  or  steamed  to  free  it 
from  fat.  The  fat  is  objectionable  in  a  fertiliser 
and  is  valuable  for  soap;  the  meat  contains  nitro- 
gen and  is  used  in  making  glue.  Boiling  or 
steaming  reduces  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the 
bone,  so  that  it  contains  about  28  to  30  per  cent, 
phosphoric  acid  and  only  about  1£  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen.  About  6  to  9  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  is  soluble.  Boiled  or  steamed  bone,  however, 
can  be  pulverised  much  finer  than  raw  bone  and 
this  greatly  increases  its  value  for  immediate  use. 
It  is  much  used  in  mixed  fertilisers  and  is  especially 
valuable  for  meadows. 

Both  raw  and  boiled  or  steamed  bone  are  sold 
under  various  trade  names,  as  "meal,"  "dust,"  and 
"fine  ground  bone."  These  terms  refer  to  fine- 
ness, not  to  composition,  and  there  is  no  uniformity; 
the  "bone  meal  '  of  one  manufacturer  may  be  as 
fine  as  the  "bone  dust"  of  another.  The  finer 
it  is,  the  better,  since  it  decays  more  quickly. 

Dissolved  Boneblack.  — Raw  bones  are  burnt 
until  they  become  "animal  charcoal"  and  are 
readily  crushed  into  a  fine  powder.  This  "bone 
black  '  is  used  in  refining  sugar.  It  is  then  turned 
over  to  the  fertiliser  dealer,  who  finds  that  it  con- 
tains 32  to  36  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  mostly 
insoluble,  and  a  small  amount  of  nitrogen.  Bone- 
black  is  sometimes  used  directly  as  a  fertiliser,  but 
more  commonly  is  treated  with  oil  of  vitriol  to  make 
the  phosphoric  acid  in  it  more  soluble.  The  re- 
sulting product  is  "dissolved  boneblack"  which 
contains  15  to  17  per  cent,  of  soluble  phosphoric 
acid  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  phos- 
phates. Some  superphosphates  are  dissolved 
boneblack. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        381 

Rock  Phosphates. — Other  sources  of  large 
amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  are  mineral  deposits 
in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Tennessee 
and  Canada.  These  rock  phosphates  are  mostly 
the  fossil  remains  and  the  dung  of  animals,  chiefly 
fish-eating  birds.  This  rock  differs  widely  in 
composition.  South  Carolina  rock  phosphate,  dis- 
covered in  1868,  is  most  generally  used.  It  con- 
tains 26  to  28  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  most  of 
which  is  insoluble.  This  South  Carolina  rock  is 
ground  very  fine  and  sold  as  "floats."  Floats  are 
often  used  for  certain  crops,  especially  on  moist 
soils  rich  in  humus.  This  raw,  cheap,  slowly- 
available  mineral  phosphate  may  often  be  used 
instead  of  the  high-priced,  quickly-available 
superphosphates,  especially  on  perennial  crops  like 
fruit  trees  and  grasses.  It  is  becoming  quite  a 
common  practice  to  use  floats  for  the  main  supply 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  to  supplement  it  with  small 
amounts  of  a  superphosphate. 

Florida  rock  phosphate,  discovered  in  1888,  is 
more  variable  in  composition  than  that  found  in 
South  Carolina.  It  contains  from  18  to  40  per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  phosphoric  acid 
in  it  seems  to  be  much  more  slowly  available  than 
that  in  South  Carolina  rock.  Tennessee  rock 
phosphate,  discovered  in  1894,  contains  30  to  32 
per  cent,  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  and  is  used 
chiefly  in  making  superphosphates. 

Phosphate  Slag,  also  sold  as  "  Thomas  slag," 
"Thomas  phosphate  meal"  and  "basic  slag"  is 
a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  Bessemer 
steel,  phosphorus  being  an  impurity  in  iron  ore. 
The  slag  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and  contains 
15  to  20  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  much  of 
which  is  soluble  in  soil  water  and  so  is  quickly 


382  SOILS 

available  for  plants.  This  material  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  phosphates  for  general  use,  espe- 
cially on  moist  soils  rich  in  humus  and  poor  in  lime. 
It  is  produced  in  this  country  in  considerable 
quantities. 

Superphosphates. — Any  phosphate,  either  bone 
or  mineral,  which  has  been  treated  with  acid  to 
render  its  phosphoric  acid  more  soluble  is  called 
a  superphosphate.  One  popular  superphosphate — 
dissolved  boneblack — has  been  mentioned.  Dis- 
solved bone,  made  by  treating  raw  ground  bone 
with  sulphuric  acid,  is  another.  It  contains  13  to 
15  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid  and  2  to 
3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  The  most  common  super- 
phosphate is  that  made  by  treating  ground  rock 
phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  great  fault 
of  the  raw  rock  and  raw  bone  phosphates  is  their 
slowness;  plants  derive  little  benefit  from  them 
the  same  season  that  they  are  applied.  To  over- 
come this,  the  manufacturer  mfces  some  strong 
acid  with  them,  usually  sulphuric  acid.  This 
makes  most  of  the  phosphoric  acid  in  them 
soluble. 

Contrary  to  the  belief  of  some,  a  well-made 
superphosphate  contains  no  free  acid  that  will 
make  the  ground  "sour."  The  acid  used  in 
making  it  is  all  combined  with  lime,  making 
gypsum,  which  is  itself  a  valuable  dressing 
for  some  soils.  However  much  difference 
there  may  be  in  the  agricultural  value  of 
raw  bone  phosphates  and  raw  mineral  phos- 
phates, a  superphosphate  made  from  one  is  as 
good  as  a  superphosphate  made  from  the  other, 
per  pound  of  phosphoric  acid;  the  kind  of  raw 
material  does  not  count  after  it  has  been  treated 
with  acid. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       383 

Besides  dissolved  bone  and  dissolved  boneblack, 
which  are  the  common  bone  superphosphates, 
"plain  superphosphate,"  "acid  phospnate,"  and 
"dissolved  rock"  are  standard  sources  of  this 
plant  food.  These  are  all  superphosphates  made 
from  rock  phosphate.  That  made  from  South 
Carolina  rock  is  most  common;  it  contains  12  to 
14  per  cent,  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid.  The 
"double  superphosphate,"  containing  about  45 
per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  is  not 
used  much  in  this  country. 

It  is  more  diffi&ult  to  decide  what  material  to 
buy  as  a  source  of  phosphoric  acid  than  either  of 
the  other  plant  foods.  The  first  question  that 
arises  is  whether  a  raw  bone  or  a  raw  mineral 
phosphate  should  be  bought,  or  a  superphosphate. 
The  relative  cost  of  the  plant  food  in  the  different 
materials,  its  availability,  and  the  special  needs  of 
the  soil  and  crop  must  determine  this.  A  pound 
of  phosphoric  acid  can  be  bought  in  raw  rock 
phosphate  for  two  and  a  half  cents;  in  raw 
ground  bone  for  four  cents  and  in  a  super- 
phosphate for  five  to  six  cents.  Crops  that 
mature  quickly,  including  most  vegetables,  need 
quickly  available  fertilisers;  while  plants  which 
grow  for  several  seasons,  as  fruit  trees  and 
grasses,  are  able  to  get  along  with  a  certain 
amount  of  slowly  available  fertiliser.  The  cru- 
ciferous plants,  as  cabbage  and  turnip,  ap- 
pear to  do  very  well  on  the  raw  phosphates. 
Use  as  much  of  the  slow-acting,  but  cheap, 
raw  phosphates  as  practicable.  Oftentimes 
a  combination  of  superphosphate,  for  quick 
results,  and  raw  phosphate,  for  general  en- 
richment, is  the  best  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem. 


384  SOILS 

SOURCES    OF    POTASH 

There  are  few  commercial  sources  of  potash; 
the  most  important  are  wood  ashes  and  the  Ger- 
man potash  salts. 

Wood  Ashes. — Until  the  discovery  of  the  potash 
salts,  this  was  the  chief  potash  fertiliser.  Wood 
ashes  are  often  leached  with  hot  water  to  extract 
the  potash  for  soap-making  and  other  purposes. 
The  ashes  remaining  contain  only  one- third  as 
much  potash  as  before — usually  but  1  or  2  per  cent. 
— besides  1|  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
30  per  cent,  of  lime.  Unleached  wood  ashes,  if 
well  cared  for,  should  contain  6  to  9  per  cent,  of 
potash,  2  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  about 
32  per  cent,  of  lime.  Hardwood  ashes  are  richer 
than  softwood  ashes. 

Wood  ashes  are  so  variable  in  composition,  ac- 
cording to  their  source,  impurities  and  care,  that 
one  should  buy  them  only  on  a  guaranteed  analy- 
sis. A  good  sample  is  worth  about  twenty  cents 
a  bushel  for  the  plant  food  in  it,  which  is  almost 
all  immediately  available.  In  addition,  wood 
ashes  have  an  important  indirect  value,  due  to  the 
lime  they  contain.  The  price  paid  for  them,  how- 
ever, should  be  based  on  their  plant-food  content 
only.  In  this  case  the  potash  in  them  costs  a 
trifle  more  than  that  in  the  German  salts;  but  the 
indirect  benefit  of  wood  ashes  is  often  so  marked 
that  their  great  popularity  as  fertiliser  is  justified. 
When  they  can  be  bought  at  about  the  same  price 
per  pound  of  plant  food,  or  a  little  more,  as  other 
potash  fertilisers,  prefer  the  ashes. 

Besides  wood  ashes,  cotton-hull  ashes  are  a 
valuable  but  limited  source  of  potash;  lime-kiln 
ashes  usually  contain  less  than  l£  per  cent,  of  potash 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        385 

and  1  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid;  coal  ashes 
contain  no  plant  food  whatever  but  may  benefit 
the  soil  by  improving  the  texture. 

German  Potash  Salts. — Deposits  of  crude  potash 
salts  in  Germany  were  discovered  in  1859.  Min- 
ing was  begun  in  1862  and  the  product  of  the 
mines  is  now  about  750,000  tons  a  year.  The 
supply  seems  inexhaustible.  Three  kinds  of  Ger- 
man potash  salts  are  commonly  used  in  this  country : 
kainit,  muriate  of  potash,  and  sulphate  of  potash. 

Kainit  is  one  of  the  crude  salts,  just  as  it  comes 
from  the  mines.  It  contains  about  12  per  cent,  of 
actual  potash  and  33  per  cent,  of  common  salt, 
together  with  other  salts.  This  extremely  large 
percentage  of  salty  material  makes  kainit  un- 
desirable for  the  heavier  soils  and  for  some  crops; 
but  it  is  beneficial  to  light  soils,  and  to  certain 
crops,  as  asparagus,  that  appreciate  salt.  Since 
it  contains  so  low  a  per  cent,  of  potash,  a  pound  of 
potash  in  kainit  costs  more  than  a  pound  in  the 
refined  salts.  For  this  reason  it  is  rarely  used 
except  when  its  indirect  benefit,  because  of  its 
saltiness,  is  needed.  Sylvinit,  another  crude  salt, 
is  very  little  used  in  this  country. 

Muriate  of  Potash  is  used  in  the  United  States 
more  than  any  other  potash  fertiliser.  It  is  very 
highly  concentrated,  containing  about  50  per  cent, 
of  actual  potash.  Potash  in  muriate  at  $40  per 
ton  costs  four  cents  a  pound,  which  makes  this  the 
cheapest  source  of  potash. 

There  are  two  occasions  when  muriate  of  potash 
should  not  be  used.  Certain  crops,  notably  to- 
bacco, sugar  beets,  onions,  and  potatoes,  are  quite 
noticeably  injured  by  the  chlorine  which  this  salt 
contains  in  large  amounts.  Again,  if  the  soil  is 
deficient  in  lime,  heavy  applications  of  muriate 


386  SOILS 

of  potash  will  be  likely  to  aggravate  the  trouble. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  apply  potash  every  year,  alter- 
nate the  muriate  with  the  sulphate,  or  with  wood 
ashes,  and  give  the  land  an  occasional  dressing  of 
lime.  Never  mix  muriate  of  potash  with  sulphate 
of  ammonia;  the  latter  will  lose  part  of  its  nitrogen. 
The  muriate  is  especially  valuable  for  the  lighter 
soils,  because  it  attracts  moisture. 

Sulphate  of  Potash  is  bought  in  two  forms, 
"high  grade  and  "low  grade.'  The  former  con- 
tains 51  to  53  per  cent,  actual  potash,  which  in 
this  form  costs  four  and  one-half  cents  a  pound  at 
the  current  price  of  $45  a  ton.  High-grade  sul- 
phate of  potash  can  be  used  safely  for  all  crops. 
Unlike  the  muriate  it  does  not  increase  the  loss  of 
lime  from  the  soil ;  although  the  potash  in  it  costs  a 
trifle  more  than  that  in  the  muriate,  the  sulphate 
is  generally  preferable  for  this  reason.  It  is 
especially  preferable  for  tobacco,  sugar  beets,  onions 
and  potatoes.  Low  grade  sulphate  of  potash  con- 
tains about  26  per  cent,  of  potash  combined  with 
magnesia,  which  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  some 
soils.  But  the  potash  in  it  costs  more  than  in 
other  forms,  so  that  it  is  not  used  much  in  this 
country. 

Many  other  materials  are  occasionally  used  as 
fertilisers,  such  as  tobacco  stems  and  stalks,  wool 
and  hair  waste,  seaweed,  crude  fish  scrap,  etc. 
The  amounts  of  food  in  the  most  common  of  these 
are  given  in  the  Appendix. 

MIXING  THE   RAW   MATERIALS 

If  but  one  plant  food  is  to  be  applied,  the 
material  is  put  upon  the  land  as  it  comes  from  the 
dealers;  if  two  or  three  are  to  be  applied,  the 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        387 

materials  must  be  mixed.  The  mere  mixing  re- 
quires little  skill,  but  it  is  very  important  to  get  the 
right  proportions  of  the  different  plant  foods  in  the 
mixture.  We  will  suppose  that  excellent  results 
have  followed  the  use  of  1,000  pounds  per  acre  of 
a  certain  brand  of  fertiliser  containing  4  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen,  8  per  cent,  of  potash  and  6  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid;  but  it  is  found  that  the  plant 
food  in  this  fertiliser  costs  more  than  it  can  be 
bought  for  in  raw  materials.  This  means  that 
for  each  acre,  a  mixture  containing  40  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  60  pounds  of  potash,  and  80  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  is  needed.  By  referring  to  the 
figures  of  the  amounts  of  plant  food  in  each  fer- 
tilising material,  we  find  that  the  40  pounds  of 
nitrogen  may  be  obtained  in  250  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  or  200  pounds  of  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
etc.  The  60  pounds  of  potash  may  be  obtained 
in  120  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash,  or  in  114 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash,  etc.  The  80 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  may  be  obtained  in 
533  pounds  of  dissolved  South  Carolina  rock,  or 
in  250  pounds  of  Florida  phosphate,  etc.  If 
sulphate  of  ammonia  is  found  to  be  the  cheapest 
source  of  nitrogen,  sulphate  of  potash,  of  potash, 
and  dissolved  South  Carolina  rock,  of  phosphoric 
acid,  the  mixture  would  be: 

200  Ibs.  sulphate  of  ammonia 

120  Ibs.  sulphate  of  potash 

533  Ibs.  dissolved  South  Carolina  rock 


853  Ibs.  for  an  acre;  larger  quantities  in  proportion. 

It  often  happens  that  some  fertilising  materials 
which  can  be  bought  to  advantage  contain  more 
than  one  kind  of  plant  food.  Thus  a  good  sample 


388  SOILS 

of  unleached  ashes  should  contain  8  per  cent,  of 
potash  and  2  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid ;  in  such 
a  case  each  plant  food  should  be  figured  out 
independently.  If  a  fertiliser  containing  10  per 
cent,  of  potash  and  5  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid 
is  needed,  and  ashes  can  be  bought  very  reasonably, 
it  will  only  be  necessary  to  add  to  the  ashes 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  muriate  of  potash,  and  of 
superphosphate,  for  example,  to  make  a  fertiliser 
having  the  desired  analysis. 

The  actual  mixing  of  fertilisers  is  easily  done. 
The  right  quantities  of  the  several  materials  are 
dumped  upon  a  tight,  smooth  floor  and  are  shovelled 
over  until  thoroughly  mixed.  The  mixture  may 
then  be  put  through  a  sieve.  It  is  best  to  keep  the 
several  ingredients  separate  until  a  short  time 
before  the  fertiliser  is  needed.  Any  fertiliser  con- 
taining ammonia  should  not  be  mixed  with  lime, 
as  lime  attacks  ammonia  and  nitrogen  escapes. 
If  highly  concentrated  fertilisers  are  mixed,  as 
muriate  of  potash  and  bone  ash,  it  is  often  de- 
sirable to  add  a  quantity  of  some  other  material, 
not  plant  food,  as  dust,  dry  soil  or  land  plaster. 
This  gives  the  mixture  greater  bulk  so  that  it  can  be 
distributed  much  more  evenly,  especially  if  light 
applications  are  to  be  made.  The  saving  in  buying 
raw  materials  and  mixing  them  at  home  is  often 
25  to  40  per  cent,  over  the  cost  of  the  same  amounts 
of  plant  food  if  bought  in  the  average  manufactured 
article. 

WHAT   KINDS   OF   FERTILISER  TO    USE 

There  are  two  great  problems  in  using  com- 
mercial fertilisers.  The  first  is,  "What  kind  and 
what  amounts  of  plant  food  does  my  soil  need?" 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       389 

The  second,  "In  what  form  can  I  buy  each  plant 
food  cheapest?" 

What  and  how  much  fertiliser  to  apply  as  a 
fertiliser  depends  upon  the  deficiency  of  the  soil, 
the  needs  of  the  crop,  the  system  of  farming,  and 
kindred  matters. 

Soil  Analyses  as  a  Guide  to  Fertilising. — If  the 
crops  are  unsatisfactory,  and  this  cannot  be 
wholly  explained  by  a  poor  texture  of  the  soil, 
a  deficiency  of  available  plant  food  may  be  sus- 
pected. But  what  kind  of  plant  food,  and  how 
much  fertiliser  will  it  pa^  to  apply  ?  The  first  thing 
that  many  farmers  do  is  to  send  a  sample  of  the 
soil  to  a  chemist  to  be  analysed;  for,  they  argue, 
if  crops  grow  on  plant  food  in  the  soil,  surely  an 
analysis  of  the  soil  should  show  just  what  it  needs. 
But  the  chemical  analysis  of  a  soil  rarely  gives 
reliable  information  about  the  best  way  to  fertilise 
it.  The  analysis  of  a  certain  soil  may  show  that 
there  are  5,000  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the 
upper  nine  inches,  but  it  does  not  and  cannot  show 
how  much  of  this  vast  amount  is  soluble,  or  in 
such  a  form  that  plants  can  use  it;  this  makes 
a  great  deal  of  difference,  from  the  farmer's 
point  of  view.  An  analysis  often  points  out 
glaring  deficiencies  and  gives  hints  that  may 
be  valuable  in  fertilising  a  soil;  but  it  is 
by  no  means  a  reliable  guide,  and  it  usually 
bears  no  relation  to  the  method  of  fertilising 
which  will  be  found  most  profitable  on  that 
soil. 

It  is  generally  understood,  however,  that  cer- 
tain types  of  soils  have  special  needs.  Clay  and 
other  heavy  soils  are  usually  rich  in  potash,  but 
poor  in  phosphoric  acid;  sandy  soils,  and  all  others 
deficient  in  humus,  lack  nitrogen;  peat  and  muck 


390  SOILS 

soils  need  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  more  than 
nitrogen,  especially  potash. 

Questioning  the  Soil. — A  good  farmer  will  not 
long  be  satisfied  to  fertilise  solely  on  hearsay  evi- 
dence. He  will  observe  the  effects  of  different  fer- 
tilisers on  his  own  crops  and,  gradually  learning  the 
peculiar  needs  of  his  soil,  will  fertilise  accordingly. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  lay  out  an  elaborate  series 
of  plot  experiments  with  fertilisers  in  order 
to  determine  with  considerable  accuracy  what 
fertiliser  pays  best  on  a  certain  soil.  In  many 
cases  it  is  enough  merely  to  test  different  fertilisers 
as  a  part  of  the  regular  farm  practice;  in  other 
cases  it  will  pay  to  lay  out  fertiliser  plots.  In 
either  case,  the  testing  should  be  done  methodi- 
cally and  the  results  should  not  be  interpreted  too 
hastily. 

A  common  way  of  testing  fertilisers  is  to  use 
different  kinds  indiscriminately,  until  one  is  found 
that  answers  the  purpose.  This  hit-or-miss  method 
is  usually  unsatisfactory.  Another  way  is  to 
apply  each  of  the  three  plant  foods  separately 
and  in  combinations.  This  is  an  exact  and 
reliable  method.  In  these  experiments  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  potash, 
and  superphosphate  as  the  sources  of  plant  food, 
since  these  materials  each  contain  but  one  kind 
of  plant  food. 

These  fertilisers  may  be  applied  to  different 
rows  of  plants,  or  to  plots  of  the  same  size.  Plots 
one  rod  wide  and  eight  rods  long,  containing 
TfV  of  an  acre,  are  a  convenient  size.  The  plots 
should  be  long  and  narrow,  so  as  to  cover 
inequalities  of  soil.  If  the  land  is  sloping,  run  them 
up  and  down  the  slope.  Make  every  condition 
in  the  several  plots  as  nearly  alike  as  possible, 


\ 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        391 

except  as  to  the  kind  of  fertiliser  applied.  It  is 
best  to  leave  between  plots  a  strip  of  land  at  least 
four  feet  wide,  which  is  unfertilised;  this  prevents 
the  fertiliser  applied  to  one  crop  from  affecting  the 
crop  in  an  adjoining  plot.  The  full  experiment 
would  look  like  this: 


PLOT  1 


PLOT  2 


Nitrate  of  Soda,  8  Ibs. 

Acid  Phosphate,  16  Ibs. 

PLOT  3 


PLOT  4 


Nothing 

Sulphate  of  Potash,  8  Ibs. 

If  it  is  desired  to  test  the  value  of  different  com- 
binations of  plant  foods,  add : 


PLOT  5 


PLOT  6 


Nitrate  of  Soda,  8  Ibs. 
Sulphate  of  Potash,  8  Ibs. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  8  Ibs. 
Sulphate  of  Potash,  8  Ibs. 
Acid  Phosphate,  16  Ibs. 

PLOT  7 


PLOT  8 


Nitrate  of  Soda,  8  Ibs. 
Acid  Phosphate,  16  Ibs. 

Stable  Manure 

PLOT  9 


PLOT  10 


Sulphate  of  Potash,  8lbs. 
Acid  Phosphate,  16  Ibs. 

Lime 

392  SOILS 

The  fertiliser  should  be  applied  broadcast  and 
harrowed  in  lengthwise,  not  crosswise,  of  the  plots. 
The  amount  used  should  be  somewhat  larger  than 
in  the  field  at  large;  if  the  plot  is  -fa  of  an  acre 
satisfactory  amounts  are  8  pounds  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  8  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash  and  16 
pounds  of  superphosphate.  The  fertiliser  may 
be  mixed  with  dry  soil  or  sand  in  order  to  dis- 
tribute it  more  evenly.  Throughout  the  season 
give  all  plots  the  same  care. 

In  comparing  the  crops  grown  under  the  dif- 
ferent methods  of  fertilising  it  is  well  to  take  only 
the  inside  rows  of  each  plot,  if  no  unfertilised  strips 
have  been  left  between  plots,  because  the  outside 
rows  may  have  been  affected  by  the  fertilising  of 
the  adjacent  plots.  The  yields  of  the  several  plots 
may  be  measured  for  comparison.  Such  a  test  as 
this,  even  though  not  carried  out  in  every  detail, 
gives  valuable  results  to  the  man  who  is  obliged  to 
use  commercial  fertilisers.  It  is  well  to  repeat  the 
experiment  two  or  three  years  and  upon  the  same 
land  if  possible. 

The  Needs  of  Different  Crops. — The  chemical 
analysis  of  a  crop  is  of  very  little  practical  value  to 
the  man  wTho  wishes  to  know  what  fertiliser  to 
apply  to  that  crop.  The  proposition  looks  plaus- 
ible, however.  The  chemist  tells  the  cotton  farmer 
that  the  crop  of  cotton  plants  which  produce  190 
pounds  of  lint  per  acre  draws  an  average  of  40 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  16  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  25  pounds  of  potash  from  the  soil.  The  farmer 
will  then  apply  these  amounts  of  the  plant  food  each 
year,  but  adding  a  little  more,  because  probably 
part  of  it  does  not  reach  the  crop. 

But  the  chemical  analysis  of  a  crop  is  no  more 
reliable  as  a  guide  to  fertilising  that  crop  than  the 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        393 

chemical  analysis  of  a  soil.  Both  are  useful  hints, 
and  may  point  out  striking  needs  or  deficiencies, 
but  other  factors  are  much  more  important.  An 
experiment  at  the  New  York  State  Experiment 
Station,  for  example,  showed  that  a  fertiliser  con- 
taining nearly  the  proportions  of  plant  food  used 
by  the  potato  plant  was  much  less  useful  than  one 
containing  very  different  proportions,  based  on 
the  experience  of  observing  growers.  An  abun- 
dance of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soil  contributes 
more  to  the  profitable  growth  of  the  cotton  crop 
than  either  of  the  other  plant  foods ;  yet  an  analy- 
sis of  the  cotton  plant  shows  that  it  contains  less 
phosphoric  acid  than  either  nitrogen  or  potash. 
The  needs  of  the  soil  and  the  needs  of  the  crop 
cannot  be  studied  separately  and  independently 
with  any  degree  of  satisfaction ;  they  are  coordinate 
and  complementary. 

Crops  do  differ,  however,  in  their  demands  upon 
the  soil.  A  knowledge  of  the  special  needs  should 
be  helpful  to  the  man  who  does  not  have  the 
results  of  a  home  fertiliser  test  to  guide  him.  A  few 
general  suggestions  follow: 

The  small  grains — wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley, 
are  especially  benefited  by  an  abundance  of  nitro- 
gen and  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  latter  is  espe- 
cially needed  in  the  development  of  grains. 

Indian  corn,  a  very  exhaustive  crop,  is  more  apt 
to  need  applications  of  the  mineral  plant  foods 
especially  phosphoric  acid,  than  of  nitrogen. 

Forage  crops,  including  the  grasses  and  grains 
grown  for  forage,  but  not  clovers,  are  most  apt  to 
need  nitrogen. 

The  clovers,  including  all  legumes,  need  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid,  but  not  nitrogen;  they  also 
draw  heavily  on  lime. 


394  SOILS 

Root  and  tuber  crops  are  more  variable  in  their 
demands.  Potash  should  be  the  most  important 
ingredient  of  a  fertiliser  for  sweet  and  Irish  pota- 
toes— the  sulphate  is  preferred  to  the  muriate; 
phosphoric  acid  for  turnips  and  nitrogen  for  beets 
and  carrots.  Root  crops  need  quick-acting  fertiliser. 

Fruits. — The  period  of  growth  of  tree  fruits  is 
extended  over  a  longer  time  than  other  farm  crops, 
and  so  slow-acting  fertilisers  may  be  used  upon 
them  to  advantage.  The  small  fruits,  however, 
as  strawberries  and  raspberries,  must  have  quick- 
acting  fertilisers.  Potash  is  of  special  importance 
in  a  fruit  fertiliser. 

Market-garden  crops  in  which  the  chief  object 
is  to  secure  the  crispness  and  tenderness  that  comes 
from  a  rapid  growth,  as  celery,  radishes,  cabbage, 
lettuce,  etc.,  must  have  an  abundance  of  quick- 
acting  fertiliser,  particularly  of  nitrogen. 

Cotton  especially  enjoys  an  abundance  of  phos- 
phoric acid. 

These  general  suggestions  on  the  fertilising  of 
different  crops  merely  indicate  what  many  people 
have  found  profitable.  They  are  subject  to  many 
exceptions,  depending  upon  the  kind  of  soil  on 
which  the  crop  is  grown.  So  it  all  comes  back  to 
the  elemental  problem  of  questioning  the  soil. 
This  will  ever  be  an  experiment  for  each  farmer; 
no  one  else  can  perform  it  for  him. 

THE   RELATIVE    IMPORTANCE    OF   THE 
THREE   PLANT   FOODS 

Phosphoric  acid  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
most  important  of  the  three  plant  foods;  not  be- 
cause it  is  more  essential  to  the  profitable  growth 
of  crops,  but  because  it  is  more  likely  to  be  lacking 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        395 

in  ordinary  soils  than  either  potash  or  nitrogen; 
and,  furthermore,  because  the  commercial  supply 
of  phosphoric  acid  is  apparently  more  limited  than 
that  of  the  other  two  plant  foods.  In  most  cases 
the  supply  of  nitrogen  may  be  maintained  without 
difficulty  with  barn  manure  and  green-manuring. 
Potash  is  found  more  in  the  straw  than  in  the  grain ; 
the  grain,  which  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  is 
commonly  shipped  away  from  the  farm  while  the 
straw  remains.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the 
future  supply,  then,  phosphoric  acid  is  the  most 
important  of  the  three  plant  foods. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  plant,  however, 
one  food  is  as  important  as  another.  Plant  foods 
are  often  spoken  of  as  though  each  one  performed 
certain  definite  functions ;  as  *  *  Potash  makes  fruit, ' ' 
"Nitrogen  makes  stem  and  leaf  growth,"  and 
"Phosphoric  acid  fills  out  the  grain."  Undoubt- 
edly each  of  the  three  plant  foods  does  exert  a 
special  influence  in  one  of  these  several  directions, 
but  all  are  essential  to  the  well-being  of  the  plant. 
"Fertilising  for  fruit"  or  "fertilising  for  grain"  or 
"fertilising  for  growth"  is  apt  to  be  one-sided  and 
unsatisfactory  fertilising.  The  plant  as  a  whole 
is  the  unit;  fertilise  to  make  a  symmetrical,  well- 
developed  plant;  not  for  an  abnormal  develop- 
ment of  any  part. 

WHEN   TO    APPLY   COMMERCIAL   FERTILISERS 

This  depends  first  of  all  upon  the  solubility  of 
the  fertiliser.  One  would  not  apply  nitrate  of 
soda,  which  dissolves  almost  immediately  in  soil 
water,  in  the  fall ;  much  of  the  nitrogen  in  it  would 
be  leached  from  the  soil  by  spring.  But  one  might 
apply  raw  bone  meal  in  the  fall,  because  this 


396  SOILS 

becomes  available  quite  slowly.  The  more  soluble 
a  fertiliser  is,  the  more  necessary  it  is  to  apply  it  at 
or  about  the  time  it  will  be  needed  most  by  the 
crop. 

As  a  class,  the  nitrogen  fertilisers  are  more 
quickly  soluble  and  more  apt  to  be  lost  by  leaching 
than  the  other  plant  foods;  they  should  usually 
be  applied  in  the  spring  or  during  the  summer,  as 
needed.  The  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  in 
fertilisers  are  not  subject  to  serious  waste;  they 
remain  in  the  soil  until  taken  out  by  plants,  com- 
bining with  lime,  silica  and  other  minerals  in  the 
soil.  This  is  called  the  "fixing"  of  these  plant 
foods.  It  usually  takes  place  within  a  week  after 
the  fertiliser  is  applied.  With  the  exception,  in 
some  cases,  of  raw  bone  and  raw  mineral  phos- 
phates, it  is  best  to  apply  fertilisers  in  the  spring. 

The  special  needs  of  crops  also  influence  the 
time  for  applying  fertilisers.  Many  crops  need 
a  special  stimulus  at  certain  times  and  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  Thus,  if  wheat  on  light  land  has 
passed  through  a  severe  winter  it  may  need  an 
application  of  nitrogen  in  the  spring,  in  addition 
to  the  regular  fertiliser  provided  for  it  the  fall  pre- 
vious. Or  again,  beets  that  are  being  forced  for 
bunching  will  profit  by  several  light  dressings  [of 
nitrogen  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  instead  of  put- 
ting all  the  fertiliser  into  the  ground  at  planting 
time. 

HOW   TO    APPLY   FERTILISERS 

The  method  of  applying  fertiliser  is  mostly  a 
matter  of  expediency.  In  a  majority  of  cases  it  is 
best  to  broadcast  it  over  the  entire  surface  after 
plowing  and  before  the  last  harrowing.  Most  of 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        397 

the  common  fertilisers  suffer  no  loss  if  left  on  the 
surface,  but  it  is  generally  considered  best  to  work 
all  fertilisers  into  the  soil,  because  this  mixing 
brings  the  plant  food  within  reach  of  the  roots 
more  quickly.  There  are  some  fertiliser  distrib- 
utors on  the  market  that  do  the  work  cheaper 
than  it  can  be  done  by  hand;  fertilisers  may  also 
be  drilled  in. 

Whether  part  or  all  of  the  fertiliser  should  be 
put  into  the  hill  or  drill  depends  upon  the  soil  and 
the  crop.  Nothing  is  lost  by  broadcasting  it,  for 
the  roots  of  the  crop  will  lay  every  foot  of  soil  under 
tribute ;  but  an  early  start  may  be  gained  by  putting 
part  of  the  fertiliser  in  the  hill  or  drill,  if  it  is  quickly 
available.  This  is  especially  profitable  on  light 
and  poor  soils,  particularly  if  but  little  fertiliser 
is  used;  and  for  market  garden  crops,  as  earliness 
counts  for  more  with  them  than  with  general  farm 
crops.  In  any  case  only  a  part  of  the  fertiliser 
should  be  put  in  the  hill  or  drill ;  most  of  it  should 
be  broadcasted.  With  grains,  however,  all  the 
fertiliser  may  be  drilled  in.  Fertilisers  used  on 
hoed  crops  that  are  growing  should  be  cultivated 
in  between  the  rows.  A  nitrogen  fertiliser  ap- 
plied after  the  crop  has  started  should  not  be  put 
on  when  the  leaves  are  wet;  if  much  of  the  fer- 
tiliser sticks  to  the  leaves,  injury  may  follow. 

The  amount  of  fertiliser  to  apply  depends  upon 
the  kind  of  soil,  the  value  of  the  land,  the  kind  of 
crop,  the  market  value  of  the  crop,  the  amount  of 
manure  available,  whether  green-manuring  has 
been  practised,  the  system  of  farming,  and  many 
other  factors.  No  general  statement  can  be  made 
that  is  of  any  value.  Perhaps  a  general  average 
for  staple  crops  on  the  poorer  soils  of  the  Eastern 
States  is  20  pounds  or  nitrogen,  80  pounds  of 


398  SOILS 

potash,  and  100  pounds  of  available  phosphoric 
acid.  Be  especially  chary  in  the  application  of 
nitrogen.  One  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  nitrate 
of  soda  is  usually  sufficient  if  used  alone.  If  used 
with  the  mineral  plant  foods,  this  application  may 
be  doubled  or  trebled. 

WHEN    IT  WILL   PAY  TO   USE   FERTILISERS 

This  depends  not  only  upon  the  condition  and 
needs  of  the  soil,  but  also  upon  the  money  value  of 
the  crop  and  the  value  of  the  land.  The  higher 
the  value  of  the  land  or  the  crop  the  more  will  it 
pay  to  fertilise  liberally,  in  order  to  secure  maximum 
yields  which  will  pay  interest  on  the  large  amount 
of  capital  invested.  The  largest  use  of  commercial 
fertilisers  is  made  in  market  gardens  and  in 
special  crop  farming,  as  the  growing  of  onions, 
tobacco,  and  fruit.  It  might  pay  to  use  a  ton  of 
commercial  fertiliser  on  an  acre  of  garden  vege- 
tables on  Long  Island  when  it  might  not  pay  to  use 
500  pounds  on  an  acre  of  wheat  in  Ohio,  although 
both  soils  were  equally  in  need  of  fertilising.  It 
is  a  question  of  economics  as  well  as  of  crop 
culture. 

It  depends  also  upon  the  thoroughness  of  the 
farming;  a  good  farmer,  especially  one  who  tills 
the  soil  thoroughly  and  keeps  it  in  good  texture  by 
the  use  of  green  manures  and  animal  manures, 
makes  the  use  of  commercial  fertilisers  pay,  but  a 
poor  farmer  does  not.  The  physical  condition  of 
the  soil — which  the  farmer  can  largely  control  and 
modify — has  more  to  do  with  the  profit  in  using 
them  than  any  other  factor.  Many  farmers  are 
not  securing  the  profit  from  fertilisers  that 
they  might  if  their  soil  was  in  better  texture. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS        399 

Fertilisers  are  so  easy  to  get  and  easy  to  apply, 
that  there  is  a  tendency  to  use  them  hastily, 
without  regard  to  their  content  and  the  needs  of 
the  soil ;  and  to  use  them  in  much  larger  quantities 
than  is  really  necessary.  The  rational  course  to 
pursue  is  to  use  them  only  to  supplement  farm  re- 
sources of  fertility;  and  to  use  them  only  up  to  the 
point  where  they  return  the  largest  ratio  of  profit 
for  the  expenditure. 

Certain  materials  that  furnish  little  if  any  actual 
plant  food,  but  exert  a  very  beneficial  effect  upon 
the  soil ,  are  called  ' '  indirect  fertilisers  "  or  "  amend- 
ments." The  most  common  of  these  are  lime 
and  land  plaster  and,  to  a  very  slight  extent,  salt. 

THE   BENEFITS   OF   LIMING 

Lime  is  an  important  factor  in  maintaining  the 
fertility  of  certain  farm  soils.  It  is  a  plant  food. 
If  a  soil  contained  no  lime,  plants  would  not 
thrive  upon  it.  Although  most  soils  contain 
sufficient  lime  for  the  needs  of  the  crop,  some  soils 
become  exhausted  of  it  and  it  is  then  needed  not  as 
an  indirect,  but  as  a  direct,  fertiliser. 

Lime  may  benefit  certain  soils  by  improving 
their  texture.  When  applied  to  a  light,  leachy 
soil,  it  makes  it  more  retentive.  When  applied  to 
a  clay,  it  has  the  opposite  effect;  the  very  fine  soil 
grains  are  cemented  together  and  consequently 
the  soil  is  made  more  porous.  The  practical 
effect  is  that  liming  a  sandy  soil  makes  it  less 
leachy,  while  liming  a  stiff  clay  makes  it  more 
crumbly;  the  condition  of  both  is  greatly  improved. 

A  third  effect  of  applying  lime  to  a  soil  that  is 
deficient  in  it,  is  that  it  makes  the  plant  food  in 
the  soil,  especially  the  potash,  more  soluble. 


400  SOILS 

Much  of  the  potash  in  our  soils  is  insoluble,  being 
"locked  up"  in  compounds  with  silica.  Lime 
attacks  the  silica  and  sets  free  the  potash.  It  also 
prevents  the  loss  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid  in  the 
soil.  The  practical  effect  of  this  is  that  liming  may 
be  equivalent  to  fertilising,  for  a  time.  But  since 
lime  supplies  no  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  or  nitro- 
gen, the  soil  is  eventually  made  less  productive. 
This  is  the  basis  for  the  old  adage,  "Liming  makes 
the  father  rich  and  the  son  poor." 

The  most  important  function  of  lime  in  modern 
agriculture  is  to  sweeten  sour  soils.  A  soil  that 
contains  free  acid  is  "sour,"  or  acid.  Such  soils, 
though  they  may  be  rich  in  plant  food,  usually 
produce  inferior  crops ;  but  if  this  acid  is  neutralised 
by  adding  lime,  they  become  productive.  There 
are  thousands  of  acres  of  sour  soils  in  the  United 
States,  notably  in  Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Illinois, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Alabama.  The  applica- 
tion of  lime  to  such  soils  may  do  more  to  make  them 
productive  than  the  use  of  large  amounts  of  com- 
mercial fertilisers. 

THE   SOILS   THAT   NEED    LIMING 

Contrary  to  the  popular  notion,  soils  containing 
a  large  amount  of  humus  are  not  more  likely  to  be 
sour  than  upland  soils.  Soils  are  sour  because  the 
rocks  from  which  they  were  formed  were  deficient 
in  lime.  Sour  soils  are  very  apt  to  have  an  abun- 
dance of  sorrel  or  "sourgrass.  '  When  this  plant 
comes  into  the  field  and  crowds  out  other  plants,  it 
is  a  fairly  reliable  indication  that  lime  is  needed, 
although  sorrel  often  grows  well  on  sweet  soils. 

Practically  all  farm  crops,  except  watermelon, 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       401 

Hungarian  grass,  red-top,  blackberries,  and  the 
lupines,  do  poorly  on  a  sour  soil;  these  seem  to 
prefer  it.  Indian  corn  and  rye  stand  it  much 
better  than  the  other  cereals.  Clover,  alfalfa, 
beets,  and  timothy  are  almost  sure  to  fail  on  sour 
soils. 

TESTS   FOR   SOUR   SOILS 

A  simple  and  fairly  reliable  method  of  deter- 
mining whether  a  soil  is  sour,  is  to  test  it  with  blue 
litmus  paper.  This  can  be  bought  at  a  drug- 
store for  a  few  cents.  Get  several  samples  of 
moist  soil  from  different  parts  of  the  field,  mix  them 
into  a  paste  with  water,  and  insert  one  end  of  the 
litmus.  At  the  end  of  an  hour,  if  the  blue  paper 
has  turned  red  where  it  came  in  contact  with  the 
paste,  probably  the  soil  is  sour. 

The  litmus  test  will  usually  show  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  whether  a  soil  is  badly  in  need  of 
lime,  but  soils  which  are  not  actually  sour  may  need 
it.  The  best  way  is  to  apply  lime  to  a  strip 
of  soil  and  compare  the  growth  of  crops  on  this 
strip  with  their  growth  on  unlimed  parts  of  the 
field.  In  the  fertiliser  test  previously  described, 
use  about  200  pounds  of  lime  on  the  uV-acre  plot. 

HOW   TO    SWEETEN    SOUR   SOILS 

A  sour  soil  should  be  limed  at  the  rate  of  1,000 
to  4,000  pounds  per  acre;  two  tons  per  acre  is 
about  the  maximum  of  application.  The  lime 
should  be  applied  broadcast  in  late  fall  or  early 
spring.  The  oest  form  of  lime  to  use  is  the  water- 
slaked.  Put  stone  lime  in  heaps  on  the  ground 
and  cover  it  with  moist  soil.  In  a  few  days  the 


402  SOILS 

lime  will  be  found  powdered  and  may  then  be 
spread.  If  air-slaked  lime  is  used,  the  applications 
should  be  heavier.  If  lime  is  used  in  seeding  to 
grass,  apply  it  ten  to  fourteen  days  before  seeding, 
if  possible.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  lime 
soils  oftener  than  once  in  four  or  five  years. 

OTHER   AMENDMENTS 

Land  plaster,  or  gypsum,  which  is  sulphate  of 
lime,  has  about  the  same  effect  upon  the  soil  as 
common  lime.  Gypsum  was  formerly  used  very 
largely,  especially  on  clover,  Indian  corn,  and  pota- 
toes. It  has  been  observed  to  increase  the  yield 
of  clover  20  to  30  per  cent. ;  but  after  a  number  of 
years,  this  benefit  is  no  longer  obtained.  Its 
beneficial  effect  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  it 
makes  the  potash  in  the  soil  more  soluble,  thus 
causing  an  increase  in  the  crop.  Land  plaster  is 
not  now  used  to  any  extent  except  as  it  occurs  as 
a  part  of  acid  phosphate,  but  in  this  case  it  has  no 
value  for  sweetening  the  soil.  It  can  be  used  to 

freat  advantage,  however,  on  the  floors  of  cow  and 
orse  stables  and  the  roosts  of  hen  houses  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  ammonia.     It  is  also  useful,  in 
some  cases,  for  treating  alkali  soils. 

Wood  ashes  are  about  35  per  cent,  lime,  and  im- 
prove the  soil  in  all  the  ways  that  lime  does.  Part 
of  the  excellent  results  commonly  secured  from 
the  use  of  wood  ashes  is  due  to  the  value  of  the 
ashes  for  correcting  acidity  and  setting  free  plant 
food. 

Marl,  which  is  chiefly  fossil  shells,  contains 
much  carbonate  of  lime  and  is  valuable  for  dressing 
land  that  needs  lime.  Large  areas  of  land  in  New 
Jersey  that  were  formerly  unproductive  have  been 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILISERS       403 

made  productive  by  applications  of  marl.  It 
improves  the  texture  of  the  soil,  sets  free  plant 
food  and  corrects  acidity,  the  same  as  lime.  If 
a  deposit  of  it  is  handy,  it  is  certainly  worth  using. 
Salt  was  once  used  considerably  as  a  fertiliser, 
especially  on  asparagus.  It  makes  the  soil  more 
moist  and  assists  decay,  but  its  agricultural  value 
is  not  equal  to  its  cost,  which  is  $4  to  $6  per  ton. 
The  potash  salt,  kainit,  is  one-third  common  salt. 
If  salt  is  needed,  buy  it  in  this  form,  because  the 
price  of  kainit  is  based  solely  upon  the  amount  of 
potash  in  it. 


APPENDIX 


I.  ROTATIONS  PRACTISED  IN  DIFFERENT  STATES 

The  following  remarks  on  the  crop  rotations  practised  in  or  recommended 
for  the  different  states  are  a  summary  of  correspondence  between  the  author 
and  the  various  authorities  quoted. 

ALABAMA 

In  the  cotton  states  the  majority  of  farmers  pay  little  attention  to  rotations. 
Where  small  grains  are  grown  the  following  rotation  is  recommended: 
First  year,  corn,  with  cowpeas  planted  in  May  or  June  between  the  corn  rows. 
Second  year,  fall-sown  oats  or  wheat,  followed  by  cowpeas  in  June.  Third 
year,  cotton.  The  cowpeas  after  the  crop  of  small  grains  are  usually  cut 
for  hay,  but  may  be  picked  for  seed  or  may  be  pastured  or  plowed  under  in 
January  or  February.  This  can  be  lengthened  into  a  four-year  rotation,  in 
order  to  put  one-half  of  the  arable  land  of  the  farm  into  cotton,  by  adding 
cotton  as  the  crop  of  the  fourth  year. 

Director,  Alabama  Experiment  Station.  J.  F.  DUGGAK. 

ARIZONA 

Our  soils  are  still  so  new  to  cultivation  and  so  fertile  that  the  need  of 
rotations  has  not  yet  been  felt.  The  deficient  elements  of  our  soils  are  nitro- 
gen and  humus.  At  present,  and  doubtless  largely  in  the  future,  these  are 
supplied  by  alfalfa. 

Agriculturist,  Arizona  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  V.  A.  CLARK. 

ARKANSAS 

Arkansas  is  both  a  cotton  and  fruit  state.  Land  along  the  rivers  is  culti- 
vated in  corn  and  cotton  without  reference  to  rotation.  Throughout  the 
state  cowpeas  grow  well  and  are  usually  sown  after  oats  and  wheat  are  har- 
vested, also  in  the  cornfields.  Rye  is  used  only  for  winter  pasture.  In  the 
orchard  belt  the  usual  rotation  is  corn,  wheat,  cowpeas;  or  corn,  oats,  clover. 
The  rotation  of  stock  farmers  is  corn  (summer),  rye  (winter),  cowpeas  or 
sorghum  (forage),  wheat  (winter  and  spring).  The  weak  point  in  the  agri- 
culture of  this  state  is  the  lack  of  diversified  crops. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Arkansas.          GEO.  A.  COLE. 

CALIFORNIA 

The  course  of  California  agriculture  hitherto  has  been  to  avoid  rotation 
and  to  keep  the  land  producing  that  to  which  it  seems  adapted,  and  for 
which  profitable  prices  could  be  had,  for  an  indefinite  period.  Recently 

405 


406  APPENDIX 

the  desirability  of  rotation  has  become  more  apparent,  especially  in  connection 
with  sugar  beet  growing.  Our  rotations  probably  will  never  be  like  those 
in  the  East  because  it  is  only  occasionally  that  a  certain  piece  of  land  is  suited 
to  the  growth  of  three  different  grains.  California  must  devise  rotations 
of  her  own,  as  her  agriculture  advances,  and  the  question  will  be  quite  as 
much  what  crop  will  succeed  at  all,  as  what  crop  will  be  best  for  the  land. 
Professor  of  Agriculture,  University  of  California.  E.  J.  WICKSON. 

COLORADO 

Under  ditch  the  principal  rotation  is  alfalfa  for  severalyears,  beets  or 
potatoes,  followed  by  grain  and  again  seeding  to  alfalfa.  The  tendency  is 
to  grow  beets  several  seasons  on  the  same  ground  on  account  of  the  high 
profit  of  the  crop,  but  they  should  be  grown  only  one  to  two  years.  Where 
potatoes  are  grown  the  same  is  true,  in  the  San  Luis  Valley,  where  50,000 
acres  of  peas  are  grown  annually,  the  rotation  is  peas,  potatoes,  grain.  The 
regions  outside  of  both  potatoes  and  beets  have  no  definite  rotation.  We 
have  under  experiment  a  rotation  of  alfalfa  two  years,  roots  one  year,  grain 
one  year. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  Colorado  State  Agr.  College.          W.  H.  OLIN. 

CONNECTICUT 

No  regular  rotation  is  practised.  One  of  our  principal  industries  is  dairy- 
ing and  we  must  grow  large  quantities  of  corn  for  silo.  On  fields  where  corn 
can  be  grown  with  greatest  economy  it  is  often  the  practice  to  grow  corn 
year  after  year,  using  stable  manures  and  commercial  fertiliser  to  maintain 
the  productive  power  of  the  soil.  A  rotation  I  have  found  well  adapted  to 
our  conditions  is:  First  year,  corn;  second  year,  potatoes;  third  year,  rye; 
fourth  year,  meadow.  The  rye  is  put  on  in  the  fall  after  the  potatoes  are 
removed,  and  the  grass  seeding  put  on  with  the  rye.  Where  potatoes  are 
not  desired,  we  sometimes  break  up  the  sod  and  grow  corn  two  years  in 
succession;  then  seed  down  either  with  rye  or  use  grass  and  clover  seeda 
alone. 

Director,  Storrs  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  L.  A.  CLINTON. 

DELAWARE 

On  most  of  the  soils  of  Delaware  devoted  to  grain  fanning,  the  most 
common  rotation,  and  probably  the  best,  is  corn  seeded  to  wheat  the  same 
fall;  the  wheat  cut  in  June,  the  stubble  clover  and  weeds  cut  once  or  twice 
with  mowing  machine  and  allowed  to  fall  to  the  ground;  clover,  or  clover  and 
timothy  the  next  June  followed  by  a  second  crop  of  hay;  or,  more  usually, 
the  field  is  turned  out  to  pasture  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  In  other 
words,  a  three-year  rotation  of  corn,  wheat  and  clover.  Sometimes  the  field 
is  pastured  the  second  season,  making  a  four-year  rotation  of  corn,  wheat, 
clover,  pasture.  This  rotation  in  itself  is  not  so  good  as  the  three-year 
rotation,  but  it  means  more  live  stock  and,  therefore,  more  forage  and  grain 
fed  on  the  farm  and  consequently  more  manure.  A  few  fanners  get  a  good 
crop  of  corn  fully  matured  every  fall  following  a  good  crop  of  crimson  clover 
hay  from  the  same  land. 

Sec.  of  Delaware  State  Board  of  Agriculture.  WESLEY  WEBB. 


APPENDIX  407 

FLORIDA 

There  is  little  or  no  systematic  rotation  practised.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  where  corn  and  cotton  are  grown,  they  follow  corn  with  cotton 
and  sow  cowpeas  in  the  corn,  or  a  row  of  peanuts  between  the  rows  of  corn. 
Farther  south  where  velvet  beans  are  grown  and  used  for  fattening  cattle 
a  rotation  is:  corn  the  first  year,  velvet  beans  the  second  year,  and  the  velvet 
beans  are  pastured  off  during  winter  and  the  ground  is  again  put  in  corn. 
In  the  vegetable  section  of  the  state,  no  rotation  is  practised  unless  it  is 
forced  by  plant  diseases  which  can  be  killed  only  by  rotation. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Florida.         CHAS.  M.  CONNER. 

IDAHO 

There  is  little  systematic  rotation  of  crops  here.  A  few  farmers  rotate 
grain  with  such  crops  as  corn,  potatoes,  and  beans.  In  some  irrigated 
sections  grain  is  rotated  with  sugar  beets.  In  older  irrigated  sections  an 
effort  is  being  made  now  to  rotate  grain  with  alfalfa.  Our  practice  at  the 
Station  is  a  five-year  rotation:  Two  years  of  grass,  one  of  corn,  one  of  wheat, 
and  one  of  oats  or  barley. 

Director,  Idaho  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  H.  T.  FRENCH. 

ILLINOIS 

Some  crop  rotations  which  are  being  practised  to  some  extent  in  this  state 
are: 

THREE- YEAR  ROTATION 

First  year,  wheat,  followed  by  cowpeas  or  soy  beans  as  catch  crop;  second 
year,  corn,  with  cowpeas  or  soy  beans  as  catch  crop;  third  year,  cowpeas 
or  soy  beans  (to  be  followed  by  wheat).  All  crops  except  the  wheat  should 
be  fed  or  pastured  or  used  as  bedding  and  all  manure  returned  to  the  land. 
If  the  corn  crop  is  cut  and  shocked,  then  a  three-year  rotation  of  corn,  wheat, 
and  clover  is  a  good  one. 

FOUR- YEAH   ROTATION 

First  year,  corn,  with  cowpeas  or  soy  beans  as  catch  crop;  second  year,  cow- 
peas  or  soy  beans  ;  third  year,  wheat  (with  clover  to  be  seeded  in  spring) ; 
fourth  year,  clover. 

If  well  filled,  the  second  crop  of  clover  should  be  harvested  for  seed.  All 
other  crops,  excepting  wheat  and  possibly  cowpea  or  soy  bean  seed,  should 
be  fed  and  the  manure  returned  to  the  land. 

FIVE-YEAR  ROTATION 

This  may  be  the  same  as  the  four-year  rotation  except  that  timothy  may 
be  seeded  with  clover  and  the  land  pastured  the  fifth  year. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Illinois.  C.  G.  HOPKINS. 

INDIANA 

Corn  is  our  principal  crop  practically  all  over  the  state,  and  forms  the  basis 
of  every  rotation,  as  it  is  generally  desired  to  bring  in  corn  as  often  as  possible. 
The  prevailing  rotation,  whenever  any  system  is  followed,  is  the  three-course — 


408  APPENDIX 

corn,  wheat  or  oats,  clover.  The  four-course — corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  is 
more  or  less  used  in  central  Indiana;  also  corn,  wheat  or  oats,  clover  and 
grass  two  years.  In  southern  Indiana  we  sometimes  find  a  two-course — 
wheat  and  clover  rotation.  For  general  purposes  we  consider  the  three- 
course  rotation  best.  Most  of  our  farmers  claim  that  they  can  get  a  better 
stand  of  clover  in  wheat  than  in  oats.  Occasionally  we  find  a  four-course 
rotation,  consisting  of  corn,  corn,  small  grain,  clover. 

Agriculturist,  Indiana  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  A.  T.  WIANCKO. 


IOWA 

Corn  is  the  "money-crop"  of  Iowa  and  it  is  desired  to  raise  as  many  crops 
of  corn  as  possible.  Clover  has  thus  far  been  found  the  most  satisfactory 
leguminous  crop  for  a  rotation  in  this  state.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
state  a  common  rotation  is  corn  two  years;  wheat  one  year;  clover  one  year. 
This  may  be  extended  into  a  five-year  rotation  by  allowing  the  land  to  remain 
in  clover  and  timothy  for  two  years.  Another  rotation,  practised  less 
extensively,  is  corn  one  or  two  years;  oats  one  year;  wheat  one  year;  clover 
and  timothy,  one  or  two  years.  In  the  northern  portion  of  Iowa,  where 
winter  wheat  has  not  been  as  successfully  grown,  the  rotation  most  extensively 
practised  is  corn  two  years;  oats  one  year;  clover  one  year.  In  many  cases 
it  is  necessary  to  sow  a  catch  crop  of  cowpeas  in  order  to  include  a  leguminous 
crop  in  this  rotation.  Winter  wheat  is  superior  to  oats  as  a  nurse  crop  for 
clover,  and  is  being  included  in  rotations  wherever  it  can  be  successfully 
grown. 

Iowa  State  College,  Dept.  of  Agr.  Extension.  A.  H.  SNYDER. 

KANSAS 

Less  than  10  per  cent.,  and  perhaps  less  than  5  per  cent.,  of  Kansas  farmers 
practise  rotation  of  crops.  The  three  main  crops  are  corn,  wheat  and 
alfalfa.  Many  fields  can  be  found  in  some  sections  upon  which  wheat  has 
been  grown  almost  continuously  from  twenty  to  thirty  years.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  corn-growing,  especially  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state. 
Alfalfa  is  often  left  on  the  fields  for  many  years.  The  size  of  the  farms 
is  such  that  the  farmers  must  resort  largely  to  wheat  culture,  as  it  would  be 
impossible  to  farm  them  thoroughly  with  several  crops  with  the  small  amount 
of  nelp.  In  most  of  the  wheat  sections  the  farmers  grow  some  corn,  kaffir 
corn  or  sorghum,  but  do  not  have  any  definite  rotation.  Two  rotations  we 
are  suggesting  are:  (1)  Alfalfa,  four  years;  corn,  two  years;  wheat,  one  year; 
and  alternating  two  years  of  corn  with  one  of  wheat  for  nine  years  more 
before  seeding  again  to  alfalfa.  (2)  Grasses  and  clover,  three  years;  corn, 
two  years;  spring  grain,  one  year;  wheat  with  catch  crops,  one  year,  repeating 
the  latter  three  twice  before  seeding  to  grass  and  clover  in  wheat. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  Kansas  Agr.  College.  A.  M.  TEN  ETCK. 

KENTUCKY 

There  is  no  very  generally  adopted  rotation,  but  as  the  fanners  understand 
the  importance  of  getting  humus  in  the  soil,  and  of  using  clover  or  some 
related  plant  in  order  to  increase  the  nitrogen,  they  generally  employ  for 


APPENDIX  409 

these  purposes,  bluegrass,  timothy,  red  clover,  cowpeas  and  soy  beans. 
The  cultivated  crops  alternating  with  these  are  hemp,  tobacco,  corn  and 
wheat. 
Botanist,  Kentucky  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  H.  G.  CARMAN. 

LOUISIANA 

Many  sugar  planters  plant  corn  and  cowpeas  after  harvesting  the  last  crop 
of  stubble  cane,  growing  a  crop  of  corn  and  cowpeas  one  year  in  three  or 
one  year  in  four.  The  rice  land  is  sown  for  two,  or  sometimes  three  years,  then 
devoted  to  cotton  or  allowed  to  grow  weeds  and  grass,  and  then  put  in  rice 
again.  On  the  prairies  of  southwestern  Louisiana  many  fields  have  been 
devoted  to  rice  for  twelve  or  fourteen  years  in  succession.  On  a  majority 
of  the  larger  plantations  cotton  is  grown  continuously  year  after  year.  Corn 
is  practically  the  only  other  crop  grown  so  there  is  little  rotation.  On  the 
alluvial  lands,  one  year  in  four  or  five  cotton  land  is  put  into  corn  and  cow- 
peas.  In  the  hill  lands  a  few  plant  grain  or  cotton,  two  years;  then  corn  and 
cowpeas  one  year;  and  sometimes  a  crop  of  oats,  followed  by  a  crop  of  cow- 
peas.  A  very  desirable  rotation  is  oats,  cotton  and  corn,  with  cowpeas 
between.  The  oats  are  harvested  in  May  and  the  land  put  in  cowpeas. 
These  are  harvested  in  September  or  October  and  the  land  is  fall-plowed 
and  the  following  year  planted  in  cotton.  The  cotton  is  followed  with  corn, 
and  cowpeas  sown  in  the  corn  at  the  last  plowing.  The  corn  is  gathered 
in  September  or  early  October  and  the  land  is  plowed  and  sown  to  oats. 
With  the  addition  of  a  reasonable  amount  of  acid  phosphate  this  builds 
up  the  land  very  perceptibly. 

Director,  Louisiana  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  W.  R.  DODSON. 


MAINE 

In  many  sections  of  the  state  no  systematic  rotation  is  practised.  We 
have  many  "patchy  farms";  a  man  will  go  to  the  middle  of  the  field,  or  to  one 
side,  and  plow  a  small  area  and  on  this  plant  any  crop.  In  Aroostook  County 
a  three-course  rotation,  consisting  of  potatoes,  oats  or  wheat,  and  clover, 
is  followed.  On  the  college  farm,  we  are  practising  a  four  or  five-year 
rotation,  potatoes,  corn,  oats,  seeding  with  the  oats  to  grass,  and  clover, 
and  allowing  the  land  to  remain  in  grass  one  or  two  years.  This  rotation 
is  frequently  followed  in  dairy  sections. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Maine.  WM.  D.  HURD. 


MARYLAND 

The  principal  crop  rotations  practised  in  this  state  are:  Southern  Maryland 
(Tobacco  section),  (1)  tobacco,  wheat,  red  clover;  (2)  tobacco  .wheat,  red- 
top  and  red  clover.  Central  and  eastern  Maryland  (dairy  farming  and 
grain  and  hay  crops),  (3)  corn,  wheat,  timothy  and  clover,  timothy;  (4) 
corn,  winter  barley,  timothy  and  clover,  timothy;  western  Maryland  (beef- 
cattle  and  grain  farming),  (5)  corn,  wheat,  clover;  (6)  corn,  oats,  wheat,  timothy 
and  clover,  timothy. 

Director,  Maryland  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  H.  J.  PATTERSON. 


410  APPENDIX 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Massachusetts  farming  is  largely  devoted  to  specialties.  Fertilisers  or 
manures  or  both  are  used  very  freely  and  there  is  less  dependence  upon  rota- 
tions than  in  many  other  states.  Some  of  the  most  important  money-crops, 
especially  onions  and  tobacco,  are  grown  year  after  year  on  the  same  land. 
In  some  parts  of  the  state  a  four-course  rotation,  (1)  turnips,  barley,  clover 
and  oats,  is  practised,  most  of  the  manure  being  applied  to  the  corn,  not  to 
the  grass.  In  parts  of  the  state  where  dairying  is  prominent  and  where 
the  potato  is  a  money-crop,  a  common  rotation  is  (2)  potatoes,  one  year; 
corn,  two  years  (the  second  for  ensilage);  grass  and  clover  three  years. 
There  are  several  modifications  of  this  rotation.  On  our  light  soils  the  follow- 
ing three  rotations  are  common:  (3)  Potatoes,  winter  rye,  clover;  (4)  com, 
potatoes,  rye,  clover;  (5)  corn,  potatoes,  rye,  grass  and  clover  two  years. 
Succession  cropping  is  practised  with  much  skill  and  success  by  our  market 
gardeners. 

Director,  Massachusetts  Agr.  Experiment  Station.         W.  P.  BROOKS. 

MICHIGAN 

A  rotation  valued  at  the  college  is  corn,  wheat,  oats  or  barley,  clover  or 
clover  and  timothy,  pasture.  In  most  cases  we  spread  manures  upon  pasture. 
We  seed  always  wim  a  grain  crop.  In  Wexf ord  County  the  following  rotation 
is  used  successfully:  Clover,  potatoes,  wheat;  seeding  to  clover  with  the 
wheat.  Many  farmers  believe  that  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  a  good  stand 
of  clover  or  clover  and  timothy  with  oats,  and  therefore  grow  wheat  or  barley. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  Michigan  Agr.  College.         JOB.  A.  JEFFEBY. 

MISSISSIPPI 

As  a  rule  our  fanners  do  not  practise  crop  rotation.  Our  best  rotation 
for  the  general  cotton  farmer  is:  Fall  oats,  followed  by  cowpeas;  cotton; 
corn,  laid  by  in  cowpeas.  The  above  rotation  has  for  i*s  principal  object 
the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  Mississippi  Agr.  College.          E.  R.  LLOYD. 

MISSOURI 

Missouri  fanners  are  just  beginning  to  rotate  crops.  In  north  Missouri 
and  part  of  Missouri  the  common  rotation  has  been  corn  for  several 
years,  then  grass  for  a  few  years  and  back  into  corn.  In  the  wheat-growing 
section  it  has  been  mostly  wheat  for  several  years,  then  into  grass,  and  back 
again  into  wheat;  although  some  of  the  farmers  have  practised  a  rotation 
01  (1)  corn,  wheat  and  clover,  or  clover  and  timothy.  A  rotation  used  in 
north  Missouri  is  (2)  corn,  oats,  clover  or  clover  and  timothy.  Farmers 
are  beginning  to  sow  cowpeas  to  some  extent,  using  (8)  corn,  cowpeas,  wheat, 
or  (4)  corn,  cowpeas,  wheat,  clover;  or  in  some  cases  simply  wheat  and 
cowpeas.  In  southeast  Missouri  some  farmers  harvest  wheat,  turn  the 
land  quickly  and  put  in  cowpeas,  harvest  the  cowpeas  for  seed  or  hay  and 
put  the  land  back  into  wheat  in  the  fall.  Some  farmers  in  northeast  Missouri 
have  a  rotation  of  (5)  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  in  some  cases  following  the 
clover  with  timothy. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Missouri.  M.  F.  MILLEB. 


APPENDIX  411 

MONTANA 

But  one  rotation  is  followed  to  any  great  extent — two  years  in  clover  and 
two  years  in  grain;  wheat  or  oats  being  usually  grown  after  the  second  crop 
of  clover,  and  oats  or-barley  the  succeeding  year.  On  dry  bench  lands  above 
the  irrigation  ditch  a  common  practice  is  to  summer-fallow  one  year  followed 
by  a  grain  crop  the  next.  On  the  watered  land,  in  some  sections,  summer- 
fallow  is  followed  by  two  or  three  grain  crops.  In  a  few  instances,  peas  are 
followed  by  two  crops  of  grain.  Sometimes  this  is  made  peas,  potatoes  and 
grain  two  years.  Some  are  planning  the  following  rotation:  Alfalfa,  four 
or  five  years;  wheat,  sugar  beets,  or  other  cultivated  crops,  two  years;  then 
one  or  two  seasons  of  grain. 

Director,  Montana  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  F.  B.  LINFIELD. 

NEBRASKA 

Crop  rotation  is  not  carried  out  systematically  by  many  Nebraska  farmers. 
Corn  is  the  main  crop  throughout  the  eastern  third  of  the  state;  frequently 
it  is  grown  continuously  on  the  same  field.  Recently  farmers  have  begun 
to  realise  the  necessity  for  some  change  on  account  of  the  corn  root-worm 
and  other  difficulties,  and  it  is  now  quite  common  to  alternate  com  with 
oats.  Where  anything  like  a  systematic  rotation  is  attempted  it  generally 
consists  of  corn  for  perhaps  two  years,  followed  by  oats  put  in  on  the  corn 
stubble  without  plowing,  followed  by  winter  wheat  drilled  in  on  the  plowed 
oat  stubble.  In  the  central  part  of  the  state,  corn  and  wheat  are  alternated 
by  drilling  in  wheat  between  the  corn  rows.  In  the  extreme  western  part 
of  the  state  the  occasional  complete  failure  of  crops  takes  the  place  of  a  rotation 
so  far  as  its  effect  on  the  land  is  concerned.  A  rotation  at  the  Nebraska 
Experiment  Station  consists  of  corn  two  years,  oats,  wheat,  alfalfa,  or  mixed 
grasses.  If  seeded  down  it  is  left  for  four  years. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Nebraska.          T.  L.  LYON. 

NEVADA 

There  is  no  prevailing  crop  rotation  in  this  state.  More  often  than  other- 
wise two  crops  of  grain  follow  alfalfa.  Potatoes  usually  follow  alfalfa  and 
are  followed  by  grain.  The  length  of  time  that  land  is  kept  in  alfalfa  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  stand.  It  is  seldom  less  than  four  years.  Some 
alfalfa  fields  in  the  state  are  twenty  years  old. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  Nevada  State  University.    GORDON  H.  TBUE. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

There  are  only  a  few  farms  which  contain  arable  land  in  large  enough 
fields  to  practise  a  definite  system  of  rotation.  The  fields  on  many  farms 
remain  in  grass  for  twenty-five  years,  or  even  longer.  The  fields  on  which 
the  sod  is  poorest  are  plowed  in  late  summer  and  either  seeded  down  again 
at  once  to  grass  or  planted  to  corn  or  potatoes  for  a  year  or  two,  and  then 
seeded  to  grass.  Perhaps  the  following  is  the  most  common  rotation: 
Corn;  potatoes;  oats,  or  oats  and  peas;  clover;  clover  and  timothy;  timothy. 
Prof.  J.  W.  Sanborn  practises  the  following  eight-year  rotation  on  his 


412  APPENDIX 

upland   farm:   Corn  (for  husking  and  ensilage);  oats  and  peas;  clover; 
potatoes;  Hungarian;  timothy;  timothy;  pasture. 
Professor  of  Agriculture,  New  Hampshire  College.     T.  W.  TAYLOR. 

NEW  JERSEY 

We  have  a  large  number  of  rotations  because  of  the  many  crops  grown. 
In  general  farming  the  rotations  are  about  as  follows:  (1)  Corn,  oats,  wheat, 
clover;  (2)  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  and  timothy  mixed,  timothy;  (3)  corn, 
wheat  or  rye,  clover.  In  dairy,  potato  and  market  garden  sections  the 
rotations  are:  (1)  Corn,  oats  and  peas  and  cowpeas,  rye  or  wheat,  clover; 
(2)  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  clover  or  timothy  or  mixed;  (3)  corn,  potatoes, 
hay;  (4)  corn,  tomatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  white  potatoes,  clover.  This  is 
not  a  regular  rotation,  but  these  are  used  as  conditions  seem  to  warrant. 

Director,  New  Jersey  Agr.  Experiment  Station.         E.  B.  VOORHEES. 

NEW  MEXICO 

But  little  crop  rotation  is  practised  in  this  territory.  Alfalfa,  in  most 
cases,  is  grown  continuously  on  the  same  land.  There  is  but  one  arrangement 
of  crops  that  can  be  classed  as  a  rotation,  that  is  wheat  and  corn,  which 
are  usually  grown  in  alternation. 

Assistant  in  Irrigation,  New  Mexico 

College  of  Agriculture.  A.  C.  MARTENBOWER. 

NEW  YORK 

One  of  the  best  rotations  where  wheat  is  grown  is :  Clover,  corn  or  potatoes, 
oats  or  barley,  wheat  with  seeding.  In  this  case  the  hay  is  usually  harvested 
but  one  season.  A  rotation  more  generally  used  in  the  southern  tier  of 
counties  where  wheat  is  not  grown  is :  Clover  and  timothy,  two  or  more  years, 
corn  or  potatoes,  oats  with  seeding.  A  rotation  considerably  used  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  state  where  buckwheat  is  much  grown,  is:  Buck- 
wheat, oats  with  seeding,  meadow  as  long  as  the  yield  is  satisfactory,  then 
buckwheat  again.  It  is  generally  recognised  that  buckwheat  has  peculiar 
value  for  mellowing  heavy  soils.  Advantage  is  sometimes  taken  of  this 
to  improve  such  soils  for  potato  growing.  The  meadow  is  cut,  the  land 
immediately  plowed  and  sown  to  buckwheat.  This  is  followed  by  potatoes, 
then  oats  with  seeding.  There  are  a  large  number  of  other  rotations  found 
on  different  farms. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Cornell  University.      J.  L.  STONE. 

NORTH  CAROLINA 

We  have  found  the  following  a  very  good  three-year  rotation  for  a  cotton 
farmer:  First  year,  (a)  wheat,  oats,  or  rye,  followed  by  cowpeas,  (&)  cotton 
followed  by  rye,  (c)  corn  with  cowpeas;  second  year,  (a)  cotton  followed  by 
rye,  (6)  corn  with  cowpeas,  (c)  wheat,  oats,  or  rye,  followed  by  cowpeas; 
third  year,  (a)  corn  with  cowpeas,  (6)  wheat,  oats,  or  rye  followed  by 
cowpeas,  (c)  cotton  followed  by  rye. 

The  peas  are  sown  after  the  small  grain  crops  and  harvested;  the  rye  in 
the  cotton  and  the  cowpeas  in  the  corn  are  sown  at  the  last  cultivation. 


APPENDIX  413 

A  good  four-year  rotation  for  a  tobacco  fanner  is:  First  year,  clover,  corn, 
tobacco,  wheat;  second  year,  corn,  tobacco,  wheat,  clover;  third  year, 
tobacco,  wheat,  clover,  corn;  fourth  year,  wheat,  clover,  corn,  tobacco. 

An  excellent  rotation  for  corn  on  the  fine,  sandy  loam-soil  of  eastern 
North  Carolina  is,  corn  followed  by  bur  clover.  Sow  4  or  5  bushels  of  clover 
in  bur  just  before  the  last  plowing  of  corn.  The  clover  is  plowed  under  in 
spring  and  a  volunteer  crop  appears  in  the  fall.  Another  promising  rotation 
is:  Peanuts  followed  by  wheat,  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas,  corn  with 
cowpeas,  cotton. 

Director,  North  Carolina  Agr.  Experiment  Station.      B.  W.  KILGORE. 


NORTH  DAKOTA 

Wheat  is  our  money-crop.  It  is  grown  chiefly  with  a  barren  summer  fallow 
every  fourth  or  fifth  year,  and  sometimes  with  a  change  to  barley  and  millet 
occasionally,  which  is  quite  desirable.  The  summer  fallow  exhausts  the 
soil  and  gives  no  return  that  season.  In  the  flax  districts,  flax  and  wheat 
alternate  and  the  two  crops  are  sometimes  replaced  by  barley  or  millet.  A 
rotation  of  three  wheat  and  flax  crops  and  one  of  corn,  potatoes,  or  other 
cultivated  crops  is  beginning  to  find  favour  instead  of  summer  fallow.  This 
gives  as  good  returns  as  fallow  and  forces  the  feeding  of  more  provender 
to  live-stock.  North  Dakota  farmers  are  now  just  beginning  to  grow  clover 
and  timothy  and  to  put  them  into  the  rotation. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  North  Dakota  Agr.  College.      J.  H.  SHEPPAHD. 


OHIO 

The  most  common  rotation  in  this  state  is  corn,  wheat,  and  a  timothy 
and  clover  mixture,  with  a  variation  in  the  number  of  years  given  to  eacn 
crop.  In  some  parts  of  the  state  a  very  common  rotation  is  corn,  two  years; 
wheat,  one  year;  timothy  and  clover,  three  years.  In  some  localities  where 
wheat  is  not  profitable  oats  are  substituted  for  it  in  this  rotation.  Alfalfa 
is  now  being  used  considerably  in  place  of  the  timothy  and  clover  mixture 
of  the  above  rotation.  Potatoes,  wheat,  and  clover  have  been  found  a  very 
satisfactory  rotation  by  our  Experiment  Station. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  Ohio  State  University.  A.  G.  McCALL. 


OKLAHOMA 

No  well-defined  systems  of  rotation  have  been  adopted  in  this  new  country. 
When  this  state  was  first  opened,  the  one-crop  system  prevailed:  wheat, 
Indian  corn,  and  cotton.  Gradually  other  crops  have  been  introduced;  we 
have  now  reached  a  point  where  rotations  can  be  adopted.  The  following 
general  rotation  could  be  used  in  northern  and  eastern  Oklahoma:  Corn; 
cowpeas  seeded  at  time  corn  is  laid  by;  oats,  followed  by"  cowpeas  for  green 
manure;  Kaffir  corn;  cowpeas,  harvested ;  fall  wheat,  followed  by  cowpeas 
for  green  manure.  This  general  plan  could  be  followed  in  other  sections  of 
the  state  but  it  would  be  necessary  to  substitute  other  crops,  as  broom  corn 
in  the  northwestern  counties,  and  cotton  in  the  southern  counties. 

Agronomist,  Oklahoma  Agr.  Exper.  Station.         L.  A.  MOOREHOUSE. 


414  APPENDIX 

OREGON 

In  the  western  portion  of  the  state,  on  farms  where  general  agriculture 
is  practised,  the  rotation  is  usually  with  the  cereals  and  clover  or  vetch;  for 
instance,  wheat,  oats,  clover  for  two  years,  or  a  crop  of  winter  vetch.  In 
the  dairying  districts  corn  is  grown  in  a  rotation  with  clover  and  cereals. 
In  the  Columbia  River  basin  in  eastern  Oregon,  the  practice  is  grain  growing 
exclusively;  usually  wheat,  bare  fallow,  and  wheat  again.  In  sections  where 
the  rainfall  is  greater,  some  farmers  follow  wheat  with  barley,  then  the  bare 
fallow. 

Director,  Oregon  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  JAMES  WITHTCOMBE. 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Probably  corn,  oats,  wheat,  grass,  the  latter  including  more  or  less  clover, 
is  the  most  common  rotation.  In  some  parts  of  the  state  another  year  of 
of  grass  is  added.  In  the  southern  part,  notably  in  the  Cumberland  Valley, 
the  common  rotations  are:  Corn,  oats,  wheat,  wheat,  grass;  and  corn,  wheat, 
wheat,  grass.  In  the  tobacco  districts  various  short  rotations  are  practised 
according  to  the  soil  conditions  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  this  crop. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  Pennsylvania  State  College.     G.  C.  WATSON. 

RHODE  ISLAND 

The  usual  practice  is  to  break  up  sward  land  and  plant  potatoes  and  corn, 
sometimes  reversing  the  order  of  these  two,  sometimes  introducing  a  crop 
of  millet  or  oats  for  another  season,  and  then  seeding  either  with  or  without 
winter  rye  or  oats.  The  land  is  allowed  to  continue  in  grass  upon  most  farms 
so  long  as  there  is  anything  worth  cutting.  The  following  rotations  are  in 
progress  at  the  Experiment  Station:  (1)  Oats  sown  in  the  spring,  with 
common  red  clover;  clover;  potatoes,  and  winter  rye  sown  after  the  potatoes 
are  harvested;  winter  rye  cut  green  and  followed  by  Hubbard  squashes; 
onions.  (2)  Winter  rye;  timothy  and  red  top  seed  sown  with  rye  and 
common  red  clover  sown  on  the  surface  the  following  March;  clover  and 
grass;  grass;  grass;  Indian  corn;  potatoes.  (3)  Winter  rye;  common  red 
clover  (seed  sown  in  March  of  the  previous  year) ;  potatoes. 

Director,  Rhode  Island  Agr.  Experiment  Station.     H.  J.  WHEELER. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 

Very  little  rotation  is  practised  here.  The  main  crops  raised  are  corn 
and  cotton.  The  bottom  lands  are  usually  planted  to  corn  year  after  year 
and  the  uplands  planted  year  after  year  to  cotton.  Cotton  can  be  contin- 
uously grown  on  the  same  land  without  diminishing  the  yield  provided  the 
seeds  are  returned  on  the  soil.  But  the  continuous  growing  of  cotton  on 
uplands  diminishes  the  fertility  rapidly;  chiefly  because  the  clean  cultivation 
that  is  required  for  this  crop  permits  the  soil  to  wash  badly.  We  recom- 
mend a  rotation  of  corn  with  cowpeas,  and  a  cover  crop  of  rye;  wheat  or 
winter  oats;  cowpeas,  with  a  rye  cover  crop;  cotton.  We  have  a  small 
section  in  which  tobacco  is  grown;  for  this  crop  we  recommend  tobacco, 
with  a  rye  cover  crop;  corn  and  cowpeas;  oats;  cowpeas;  rye,  with  a  cover 
crop;  cotton. 

Director,  South  Carolina  Agr.  Experiment  Station.         J.  N.  HABPEB. 


APPENDIX  415 

SOUTH  DAKOTA 

No  very  definite  methods  of  rotating  crops  have  yet  been  adopted.  In 
the  dryer  central  and  western  portions  of  the  state  it  is  important,  if  not 
essential,  that  small-grain  crops  be  alternated  with  cultivated  crops  or  with 
summer  fallow  handled  to  conserve  moisture.  In  the  eastern  and  south- 
eastern portions  of  the  state,  where  moisture  is  more  plentiful,  a  sod  crop 
is  needed  in  the  rotation.  Some  suggested  rotations  are:  (1)  Wheat,  brome 
hay  three  years,  flax,  wheat,  corn.  (2)  Barley,  millet,  wheat.  (3)  wheat, 
corn,  oats.  (4)  Wheat,  corn  (manured),  wheat,  oats.  (5)  Wheat,  oats, 
corn,  flax,  millet. 

Agronomist,  South  Dakota  Agr.  Experiment  Station.          J.  S.  COLE. 

TENNESSEE 

A  rotation  often  followed  is  corn,  alone  or  with  cowpeas,  wheat,  grass  or 
grass  and  clover.  This  rotation  is  adapted  to  east  and  middle  Tennessee, 
and  parts  of  west  Tennessee.  Short  rotations  of  wheat  and  clover,  and  of 
wheat  and  cowpeas  are  also  practised  to  advantage.  A  good  rotation  for 
cotton  is:  Cotton;  corn,  and  peas;  a  cereal  (usually  oats);  cowpeas.  Two  de- 
sirable pasture  rotations  for  sheep  and  hogs  are;  (1)  Barley,  (sown  in 
August);  sorghum;  rape;  cowpeas.  (2)  Clover,  either  red  or  alsike,  sown 
in  August  or  early  in  September;  rape  or  barley  or  spring  oats,  followed  by 
soy  beans  or  cowpeas. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Tennessee.       CHAS.  A.  MOOERS. 

TEXAS 

The  common  rotation  in  this  state  is  corn  and  cotton.  In  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  state,  notably  the  black-land  section,  alfalfa  and  cowpeas 
are  added  to  this  rotation.  We  have  no  grass  crops  that  can  come  into  our 
rotations;  therefore,  for  the  most  part,  our  soils  are  covered  with  intertillage 
crops.  In  some  sections  peanuts  are  grown,  in  other  sections  potatoes  have  a 
place.  Nearly  all  the  legumes  are  grown  with  considerable  success.  In  the 
north  Texas  black-land  country  is  a  four-course  rotation  of  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
and  cotton. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  Texas  Agr.  College.  F.  S.  JOHNSTON. 

UTAH 

There  is  little  systematic  rotation  of  crops,  largely  because  our  soil  is 
still  nearly  virgin.  Among  sugar-beet  growers  a  common  rotation  is:  Beets, 
manure  applied  in  the  fall  ana  plowed;  beets;  alfalfa,  with  oats  for  a  nurse 
crop;  alfalfa,  third  crop  plowed  under  as  a  green  manure;  beets.  Sometimes 
an  oat  crop  follows  alfalfa  previous  to  seeding  the  beets.  A  better  rotation 
is:  Sugar  oeets,  manure  applied  in  the  fall  and  plowed  under;  beets;  field 
peas  with  or  without  oats;  sugar  beets;  corn  or  potatoes;  alfalfa  and  oats; 
alfalfa,  with  third  crop  plowed  under;  sugar  beets.  Where  it  is  desired 
to  grow  such  crops  as  tomatoes  and  possibly  wheat,  or  any  other  main^  crops, 
they  can  be  supplied  in  place  of  oats,  potatoes,  or  sugar  beets,  in  this 
rotation.  In  dry  farming  the  usual  method  at  present  is  to  grow  wheat  two 
years  out  of  three,  the  land  being  summer-fallowed  one  year  in  three. 
Occasionally  wheat  is  followed  by  barley  or  oats.  A  better  system  is :  Wheat, 
potatoes  if  possible,  or  com;  wheat;  field  peas;  barley;  summer  fallow;  wheat. 

Agronomist,  Utah  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  W.  M.  JAKDINE. 


416  APPENDIX 

VERMONT 

Corn,  potatoes,  grass;  or  corn,  oats,  grass  are  about  the  only  rotations 
practised  in  this  state,  grass  occupying  the  major  time. 

Director,  Vermont  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  J.  L.  HILLS. 

VIRGINIA 

The  most  common  rotation  is  corn,  one  year;  wheat,  two  years;  grass 
for  three  to  five  years.  Two  years  of  wheat  are  put  in  because  the  farmers 
do  not  consider  that  they  get  their  land  in  proper  condition  for  grass  following 
the  corn  with  one  year  of  wheat,  especially  when  they  expect  to  mow  it  for 
one  or  two  years. 

Agronomist,  Virginia  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  JOHN  FAIN. 


WASHINGTON 

There  have  not  been,  as  yet,  any  well-defined  rotations  established.  In 
the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  Palouse  country,  there  is  just  beginning 
to  be  considerable  alfalfa  and  brome  grass  grown,  but  where  these  are  grown 
the  farmers  usually  put  them  in  for  permanent  meadow  or  pasture,  rather 
than  inserting  them  as  crops  in  a  rotation. 

Through  all  the  wheat  belt  the  common  practice  is  to  alternate  grain  with 
summer  fallow,  with  two  years  of  grain  to  one  year  of  summer  fallow  in  the 
more  moist  parts  of  the  wheat  belt  and  alternate  grain  and  summer  fallow 
in  the  drier  portions.  •  In  the  more  moist  portions  the  practice  is  rapidly 
developing  of  growing  corn,  potatoes,  or  sugar  beets  on  these  summer  fallows 
and  this  is  giving  excellent  results  wherever  tried.  The  objections  to  summer 
fallowing  are  too  well  known  to  need  mention. 

In  our  irrigated  sections  cropping  is  becoming  highly  specialised,  alfalfa 
continuously  in  one  place,  hops  in  another,  fruit  in  another.  On  the  west 
side  of  the  state  specialisation  is  also  marked,  though  dairying  is  beginning 
to  be  a  permanent  factor  and  farmers  are  seeking  to  work  out  some  sort  of 
a  rotation  and  some  system  of  soiling.  There  are  no  established  rotations 
.as  yet  in  the  state  of  Washington. 

Assistant  Agriculturist,  Washington  State  College.      GEO.  SEVERANCE. 

WISCONSIN 

In  central  Wisconsin  clover  is  sown  with  barley,  and  the  barley  harvested; 
the  second  year  the  clover  is  clipped  after  reaching  the  height  of  about  six 
inches  and  the  full  crop  retained  for  seed;  the  third  year  the  land  is  plowed 
and  run  to  corn,  followed  with  clover  sown  with  barley.  The  most  common 
rotation  is  clover  and  timothy  sown  with  barley,  oats,  or  wheat  as  a  nurse  crop. 
First  year,  harvest  the  grain.  The  next  year  the  crop  is  clover  largely, 
getting  as  a  rule  two  cuttings.  The  ground  is  then  manured  quite  heavily 
in  the  fall  and  winter.  As  a  rule  some  clover  and  a  good  crop  of  timothy 
will  be  secured  the  third  year.  As  soon  as  the  hay  is  cut  the  land  is  usually 
pastured  until  fall.  The  fourth  year  the  sod  is  turned  and  corn  planted. 
.Some  farmers  add  a  fifth  year  in  which  the  ground  is  pastured. 

Agronomist,  Wisconsin  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  R.  A.  MOOBE. 


APPENDIX  417 

WYOMING 

There  are  no  crop  rotations  in  general  use.  In  the  older  fanning  districts 
the  farmers  are  generally  adopting  the  rotation  common  in  northern  Colorado; 
namely,  alfalfa  three  years,  potatoes,  grain  and  seed  down  to  alfalfa.  This 
rotation  is  probably  unexcelled  for  the  arid  regions  where  potatoes  are  success- 
fully raised  as  a  general  crop.  At  higher  altitudes  an  excellent  rotation  is 
field  peas  one  or  two  years  (to  be  fed  lambs  through  the  winter  and  not 
harvested),  followed  by  grain.  Farming  without  irrigation  consists  in  fallow 
one  year  and  grain  or  some  other  crop  the  next.  Our  soils  are  rich  in  mineral 
foods  and  poor  in  nitrogen  and  humus,  so  any  successful  rotation  must  con- 
tain a  legume. 

Director,  Wyoming  Agr.  Experiment  Station.  B.  C.  BUFFUM. 

II.  ANALYSES  OF  SOILS 

The  following  analyses  of  a  few  representative  soils  illustrate  the  general 
composition  of  farm  soils. 

ANALYSIS  OF  ADOBE  SOIL  FROM  SANTA  FE,  NEW  MEXICO 

Per  Cent. 

Silica 66.69 

Alumina 14.16 

Ferric  oxide 4.38 

Manganese  oxide         0.09 

Lime 2.49 

Magnesia          1.28 

Potash 1.21 

Soda      . 0.57 

Carbonic  acid         0.77 

Phosphoric  acid 0.29 

Sulphuric  anhydride 0.41 

Chlorine 0.34 

Water 4.94 

Organic  matter 2.00 

ANALYSIS  OF  LOESS  FROM  DUBUQUE,  IOWA 

Per  Cent. 

Silica 72.68 

Alumina 12.03 

Iron  sesquioxide 

Iron  protoxide 

Titanum  oxide 0.72 

Phosphoric  anhvdride 0.23 

Manganese  oxide         0.06 

Lime 1-59 

Magnesia    .                                   l-ll 

Sod! 1-63 

Potash 2.13 

Water    . 2.50 

Carbon  dioxide 

Sulphurous  anhydride 0.51 

Carbon  .                                                          0.09 


418  APPENDIX 

ANALYSIS  OF  SOIL  FROM  YAKIMA  COUNTY,  WASHINGTON 

Per  Cent. 

Insoluble  matter 71.67  \  ~K  „<, 

Soluble  silica 5.11/7b'7b 

Potash 1.07 

Soda 0.35 

Lime 2.00 

Magnesia 1.34 

Brown  oxide  of  manganese 0.04 

Peroxide  of  iron 6.88 

Alumina 7.91 

Phosphoric  acid 0.13 

Sulphuric  acid 0.02 

Water  and  organic  matter 2.82 

Total 99.33 

Humus 4.10 

Hygroscopic  moisture 4.98 

ANALYSIS  OF  SWAMP  SOIL  IN  CARTERET  COUNTY,  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Per  Cent. 

Silica  (insoluble) 1.52 

Silica  (soluble) 0.00 

Alumina 0.39 

Oxide  of  iron 0.15 

Lime 0.36 

Magnesia 0.14 

Potash 0.06 

Soda 0.13 

Phosphoric  acid 0.06 

Sulphuric  acid 0.38 

Chlorine .  0.02 

Organic  matter 87.25 

Water    .                 9.60 


APPENDIX 


419 


HI.    NATIVE  PLANT  FOOD  IN  FARM  SOUS 

The  analyses  given  below  show  the  large  amounts  of  plant  food  that 
are  in  most  farm  soils,  and  the  wide  variation  in  these  amounts. 


u 

*.Sd 

*"  u  e  * 

•S.SB 

Where  from 

§D 
u 

u 

•sl 

•a"" 

™   U  on 

§SL-s 

•3J:     oo 

I'fi'C    a 

«5     " 

l-sr-s 

5-1  s 

o  «3 

^»  "•  •—  Vi 

j?  J  o  «tn 

CM  O  —  k- 

Ze, 

cue* 

----":" 

B*  fc  O 

Alabama    

.195 

.196 

.183 

4,218 

4,240 

3,959 

.282 

.267 

866 

6436 

6094 

19756 

Canada    

.048 

.14 

.25 

1,112 

3,244 

5,793 

Canada    

.114 

.13 

.39 

2,638 

3,008 

9,024 

Colorado   

.04 

.23 

.23 

872 

5,016 

5,016 

Connecticut  .... 

.334 

.038 

.056 

7,224 

822 

1,211 

Connecticut  .... 

.14 

.051 

.047 

2,971 

1,082 

997 

Michigan  

.11 

.28 

1.95 

2,455 

6,250 

43,526 

Michigan  

.07 

.21 

1.1 

1,484 

4,451 

23,314 

Missouri  

.14 

.08 

1.32 

3,012 

1,721 

28,395 

Missouri  

.13 

.07 

2.54 

2,814 

1,515 

54,986 

Nebraska 

.07 

1.42 

.197 

1,530 

31,062 

4,306 

Nebraska  

.073 

.062 

.741 

1,581 

1,334 

15,938 

New  York  

.204 

.115 

.96 

4,362 

2,460 

20,532 

New  York  

.13 

.16 

.51 

3,074 

3,784 

12,063 

420 


APPENDIX 


IV.    PLANT  FOOD  DRAWN  FROM  THE  SOIL  BY  AVERAGE 
YIELDS  OF  DIFFERENT  CROPS 

(The  analyses  given  in  IV,  V,  VI,  and  VII  are  chiefly  from  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut  Experiment  Station 
Reports.) 


Name  of  Crop 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Alfalfa  289 

Barley   78 

Buckwheat   63 

Cabbage    213 

Cauliflower  202 

Carrot     166 

Clover,  red    171 

Clover,  scarlet    95 

Clover,  white   89 

Cowpea 254 

Corn 146 

Cotton  110 

Cucumber 142 

Hop     200 

Hemp 

Lettuce 41 

Meadow  hay    166 

Oat    89 

Onion    96 

Pea    153 

Potato      119 

Rape    154 

Rice     39 

Rye    87 

Soja  (Soy)  bean 297 

Sugar  cane   518 

Sorghum 446 

Sugar  beet    95 

Tobacco    127 

Turnip    187 

Vetch 149 

Wheat   Ill 


65 
35 
40 
125 
76 
65 
46 
17 
29 
64 
69 
32 
94 
54 
34 
17 
53 
35 
49 
39 
55 
79 
24 
44 
62 
37 
90 
44 
32 
74 
35 
45 


181 

62 

17 

514 

265 

190 

154 

57 

58 

169 

174 

35 

193 

127 

54 

72 

201 

96 

96 

69 

192 

124 

45 

76 

87 

107 

561 

200 

148 

426 

113 

58 


APPENDIX  421 

V.    ANALYSES  OF  COMMERCIAL  FERTILISING  MATERIALS 


Name  of  Substance 

Moisture 
Per  Cent. 

Nitrogen 
Per  Cent. 

*j 

a 

15 

0  « 

CL.Q* 

PHOSPHORIC   ACID 

Available 
Per  Cent 

Insoluble 
Per  Cent. 

Total 
Per  Cent 

Phosphoric  Acid  Fertilisers 
Apatite     

36.08 
35.89 
28.28 
17.00 
23.50 
29.90 
17.60 
18.90 
13.35 
21.88 
34.27 
26.77 
15.26 
28.03 
27.20 
15.20 
35.00 

8.50 

Bone  ash    

7.00 

Bone-black  

4.60 

Bone-black  (dissolved) 

16.70 

8.28 

0.30 
15.22 

Bone  meal  

7.47 

4.12 
1.70 

Bone  meal  (from  glue  factory) 
Bone  meal  (dissolved)   

2.60 

13.53 

4.07 

Caribbean  guano    

Cuban  guano  

24.27 
12.52 
7.60 

1.67 
0.76 

Mona  Island  guano. 

7.55 

14.33 

Nevassa  phosphate 

Orchilla  guano 

7.31 

Peruvian  guano  

14.81 
1.50 

7.85 

2.61 

8.36 
0.60 

6.90 
27.43 

S   Carolina  rock  (ground) 

S.  Carolina  rock  (floats) 

S.  Carolina  rock  (dissolved) 

11.60 

3.60 
35.00 

Florida  rock  phosphate 

Potash  Fertilisers 
Cottonseed  hull  ashes    
Kainit 

7.33 
3.20 

23.80 
13.54 

Muriate  of  potash 

2.00 

50.46 

Nitrate  of  potash 

1.93 
6.31 

13.09 

45.19 
2.02 

Spent  tan-bark  ashes 

1.61 

Sulphate  potash  (high-grade) 

1.25 

51.60 

Sulphate  potash  and  magnesia 
Sylvanite 

4.75 

7.25 

23.50 

16.65 

Tobacco  stems 

10.61 
9.00 

2.29 

6.44 
5.50 

0.60 
1.85 
1.40 

2.16 
1.45 
1.91 
8.25 
1.83 
3.52 
2.07 
1.70 

T^ood  ashes  (unleached) 

\Vood  ashes  (leached) 

1.10 

Nitrogen  Fertilisers 
Castor  pomace 

9.98 
6.86 
12.50 
12.75 
10.17 
7.27 
12.09 
7.40 
1.25 
6.00 
8.54 

5.56 
6.66 
10.52 
7.25 
13.25 
4.50 
10.44 
4.04 
15.75 
2.30 
12.12 

1.12 
1.62 

Cottonseed  meal 

Dried  blood 

Dried  fish  

0.45 

3.05 

5.20 

Lobster  shells 

Meat  scrap 

Malt  sprouts 

2.20 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Nitrate-cake 

0.40 

Oleomargarine  refuse  

0.88 

422 


APPENDIX 


V.    ANALYSES  or  COMMERCIAL  FERTILISING  MATERIALS — Continued 


PHOS 

MIOK1C 

ACID 

Name  of  Substance 

Moisture 
Per  Cent. 

Nitrogen 
Per  Cent. 

Potash 
Per  Cent. 

Available 
Per  Cent. 

Insoluble 
Per  Cent. 

Total 
Per  Cent. 

Nitrogen  Fertilisers 
Sulphate  of  ammonia  

1.00 

20.50 

Tankage  

13  20 

6  82 

5  02 

6  23 

11  25 

Wool  waste    

9.27 

5.64 

1.30 

0.29 

Miscellaneous  Materials 
Ashes  (anthracite  coal)    

0.10 

0.10 

Ashes  (bituminous  coal)    

0.40 

0.40 

Ashes  (corn-cob)  

23.20 

Ashes  (lime-kiln)      

15.45 

0.86 

1.18 

Ashes  (peat  and  bog)      

5.20 

0.70 

0.50 

Gas  lime  

4.40 

0.30 

Marl  (Massachusetts)    

18.18 

1.05 

Marl  (North  Carolina)    

1.50 

0.04 

0.56 

Muck  (fresh)  

76.20 

0.30 

Peat  

61.50 

0.75 

Pine  needles    

7.80 

0.30 

0.10 

0.20 

Shell  lime  (oyster  shell) 

19.50 

0.04 

0.20 

Soot  

5.54 

1.83 

Spent  tan  bark   

14.00 

0.20 

0.10 

0.04 

Spent  sumach 

30.80 

1.00 

0.30 

0.10 

Sugar-house  scum  .  . 

50.20 

2.10 

VI.    ANALYSES  OF  FARM  MANURES 


Name  of  Substance 

Moisture 
Per  Cent. 

Nitrogen 
Per  Cent. 

•S3 
3? 
££ 

Phosphoric 
Acid 
Per  Cent. 

Cattle  (solid  fresh  excrement)     .    .  . 

0.29 

0.10 

0.17 

Cattle  (fresh  urine)   

0.58 

0.49 

Hen  manure  (fresh)    

1.63 

0.85 

1.54 

Horse  (solid  fresh  excrement)  .... 

0.44 

0.35 

0.17 

Horse  (fresh  urine)   

1.55 

1.50 

Poudrette  (night  soil)     

0.80 

0.30 

1.40 

Sheep  (solid  fresh  excrement)  

0.55 

0.15 

0.31 

Sheep  (fresh  urine)     

1.95 

2.26 

0.01 

Stable  manure  (mixed)     

73.27 

0.50 

0.60 

0.30 

Swine  (solid  fresh  excrement)  

0.60 

0.13 

0.41 

Swine  (fresh  urine)      

0.4S 

0.83 

0.07 

APPENDIX 


423 


VH.    FERTILISING  MATERIALS  IN  FARM  PRODUCTS 


Name  of  Substance 

Moisture 
Per  Cent. 

Nitrogren 
Per  Cent. 

Potash 
Per  Cent. 

Phosphor- 
ic Acid 
Per  Cent. 

Hay  and  Dry  Fodders 
Alfalfa                

6.26 

2.07 

1.46 

053 

Carrot  tops  (dry)       

9.76 

3.13 

4.88 

061 

Clover  (alsike)                 

9.93 

2.33 

2.01 

0  70 

Clover  (crimson)  

16.4 

1.95 

1.17 

.36 

Clover  (mammoth  red)     

11.41 

2.23 

1.22 

0.55 

Clover  (medium  red)      

10.72 

2.09 

2.20 

044 

Clover  (white)      

2.75 

1.81 

052 

Corn  fodder     

1.80 

0.76 

0.51 

Corn  stover    

28.24 

1.12 

1.32 

0.30 

Cowpea  vines  

9.00 

1.64 

0.91 

0.53 

Hungarian  grass  (brome)  

7.15 

1.16 

1.28 

0.35 

Italian  rye-grass     

8.29 

1.15 

0.99 

055 

June  grass    

1.05 

1.46 

0.37 

Meadow  fescue    

9.79 

0.94 

2.01 

0.34 

Meadow  foxtail     

1.54 

2.19 

0.44 

IVTillpt  (common)     .  .  .  ,  .  .  .  .  . 

9.75 

1.28 

1.69 

0.49 

Mixed  grasses    

11.26 

1.37 

1.54 

0.35 

Orchard  grass    

8.84 

1.31 

1.88 

0.41 

Perennial  rye-grass     

9.13 

1.23 

1.55 

0.56 

Red-top  

7.71 

1.15 

1.02 

0.36 

Salt  hay    

5.36 

1.18 

0.72 

0.25 

Serradella     

7.39 

2.70 

0.65 

0.78 

Soja  (Soy)  bean    

6.30 

2.32 

1.08 

0.67 

Tall  meadow  oat  grass     

1.16 

1.72 

0.32 

Timothy  hay    

7.52 

1.26 

1.53 

0.46 

Vetch  and  oats    

11.98 

1.37 

0.90 

0.53 

Yellow  trefoil    '.  

2.14 

0.98 

0.43 

Green  Fodders 
Alfalfa     

75.30 

072 

0.45 

0.15 

Clover  (crimson)   

8.15 

43 

.26 

.08 

Clover  (red)     

80.00 

0.53 

0.46 

0.13 

Clover  (white)      

81.00 

0.56 

0.24 

0.20 

Corn  fodder      

72.64 

0.56 

0.62 

0.28 

Corn  fodder  (ensilage)      

71.60 

0.36 

0.33 

0.14 

Cowpea  vines  

78.81 

0.27 

0.31 

0.98 

Horse  bean  

74.71 

0.68 

1.37 

0.33 

Meadow  grass  (in  flower)      

70.00 

0.44 

0.60 

0.15 

Millet    

62.58 

0.61 

0.41 

0.19 

Oats     

83.36 

0.49 

0.38 

0.13 

Peas  

81.50 

0.50 

0.56 

0.18 

Rye  grass      

70.00 

0.57 

0.53 

0.17 

Serradella      

82.59 

0.41 

0.42 

0.14 

424 


APPENDIX 


VII.    FERTILISING  MATERIALS  IN  FARM  PRODUCTS — Continued 


Name  of  Substance 

Moisture 
Per  Cent. 

Nitrogen 
Per  Cent. 

Potash 
Per  Cent. 

Phosphor- 
ic Acid 
Per  Cent. 

Green  Fodder 
Sorghum     

0.40 

0.32 

0.08 

Vetch  and  oats  

86.11 

0.24 

0.79 

0.09 

White  lupine    

85.35 

0.44 

1.73 

0.35 

Young  grass     ....                 

80.00 

0.50 

1.16 

0.22 

Straw,  Chaff,  Leaves,  etc. 
Barley  chaff    

13.08 

1.01 

0.99 

0.27 

Barley  straw    

13.25 

0.72 

1.16 

0.15 

Beech  leaves   (autumn)   

15.00 

0.80 

0.36 

0.24 

Buckwheat  straw    

16.00 

1.30 

2.41 

0.61 

Corn  cobs    

12.09 

0.50 

0.60 

0.06 

Corn  hulls    .... 

11.50 

0.23 

0.24 

0.02 

Oak  leaves    

15.00 

0.80 

0.15 

0.34 

Oat  chaff   

14.30 

0.64 

1.04 

0.20 

Oat  straw    

28.70 

0.29 

0.88 

0.11 

Pea  shells     

16.65 

1.36 

1.38 

0.55 

Pea  straw  (cut  in  bloom)  

2.29 

2.32 

0.68 

Pea  straw   (ripe)  

1.04 

1.01 

0.35 

Potato  stalks  and  leaves    .         .... 

77.00 

0.49 

0.07 

0.06 

Rye  straw    

15.40 

0.24 

0.76 

0.19 

Sugar  beet  stalks  and  leaves 

92  65 

0.35 

0.16 

0.07 

Turnip  stalks  and  leaves    

89.80 

0.30 

0.24 

0.13 

Wheat  chaff   (spring)  

14.80 

0.91 

0.42 

0.25 

Wheat  chaff   (winter)  

10.50 

1.01 

0.14 

0.19 

Wheat  straw   (spring)    

15.00 

0.54 

0.44 

0.18 

Wheat  straw  (winter)    

10.36 

0.82 

0.32 

0.11 

Roots  and  Tubers 
Beets   (red)     

87.73 

0.24 

0.44 

0.09 

Beets   (sugar)     

84.65 

0.25 

0.29 

0.08 

Beets   (yellow  fodder)    

90.60 

0.19 

0.46 

0.09 

Carrots    

90.02 

0.14 

0.54 

0.10 

Mangels    

87.29 

0.19 

0.38 

0.09 

Potatoes    

79.75 

0.21 

0.29 

0.07 

Rutabagas    

87.82 

0.21 

0.50 

0.13 

Turnips  

87.20 

0.22 

0.41 

0.12 

Grains  and  Seeds 
Barley     

15.42 

2.06 

0.73 

0.95 

Beans  

4.10 

1.20 

1.16 

Buckwheat     

14.10 

1.44 

0.21 

0.44 

Corn  kernels    

10.88 

1.82 

0.40 

0.70 

Corn  kernels  and  cobs   (cob  meal)  . 
Hemp  seed    

10.00 
12.20 

1.46 
2.62 

0.44 
0.97 

0.60 
1.75 

Linseed  

11.80 

3.20 

1.04 

1.30 

APPENDIX  425 

•* 

VII.    FEBTILISING  MATERIALS  IN  FARM  PRODUCTS — Continued 


Name  of  Substance 

Moisture 
Per  Cent 

Nitrogen 
Per  Cent. 

Potash 
Per  Cent 

Phosphor- 
ic Acid 
Per  Cent 

Grains  and  Seeds 
Lupines  

13.80 
13.00 
20.80 
19.10 
14.90 
18.33 
14.00 
14.75 
15.40 

13.52 
13.43 
8.93 
8.85 
14.20 
9.83 

80.50 
10.63 

5.52 
2.40 
1.75 
4.26 
1.76 
5.30 
1.48 
2.36 
2.83 

2.05 
1.55 
1.63 
3.08 
1.68 
2.21 

0.23 
0.75 
6.52 
2.62 
5.43 
0.98 
5.40 
6.02 
3.67 
2.25 
1.84 
3.05 
0.89 
2.88 
2.63 

0.58 
0.58 
0.58 
0.12 
0.64 
4.05 
4.75 
5.45 

1.14 
0.47 
0.41 
1.23 
0.54 
1.99 
0.42 
0.61 
0.50 

0.44 
0.34 
0.49 
0.99 
0.65 
0.54 

0.13 
1.08 
1.89 
0.15 
0.05 
0.11 
1.16 
1.16 
1.60 
0.66 
0.81 
1.55 
0.05 
1.62 
0.63 

0.17 
0.09 
0.19 

0.09 
0.29 
0.29 
0.20 

0.87 
0.91 
0.48 
1.26 
0.82 
1.87 
0.81 
0.89 
0.68 

0.71 
0.66 
0.98 
0.82 
0.85 
0.57 

0.02 
0.18 
2.78 
0.29 
0.43 
0.20 
1.42 
1.65 
1.40 
1.11 
1.26 
1.26 
0.31 
2.87 
0.95 

0.30 
0.15 
0.34 

0.15 
0.80 
0.80 
0.80 

Millet    

Oats    

Peas  

Rye    

Soja  (Soy)  beans  

Sorghum           

Wheat,  spring   

Wheat,  winter     

Flour  and  Meal 
Corn  meal    

Ground  barley    

Hominy  feed   

Pea  meal    

Rye  flour   

Wheat  flour  

By-products  and  refuse 
Apple  pomace   

Cotton  hulls    

Cottonseed  meal     .  .         

Glucose  refuse 

8.10 
8.53 
8.98 
6.12 
7.79 
10.28 
8.19 
12.54 
6.98 
75.01 
11.01 
9.18 

87.20 
68.80 
90.20 
13.60 
90.10 
38.00 
39.80 
46.00 

Gluten  meal    

Hop  refuse    .  .         

Linseed  cake  (new  process) 

Linseed  cake  (old  process)  

Malt  sprouts    

Oat  bran    

Rye  middlings     

Spent  brewer  s  grains  (dry)     

Spent  brewer's  grains  (wet) 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings    

Dairy  Products 
Milk    

Cream     

Skim   milk     ....... 

Butter     

Butter-milk    

Cheese  (from  unskimmed  milk)  .... 
Cheese  (from  half-skimmed  milk)  .  . 
Cheese   (from  skimmed  milk)    .... 

426  APPENDIX 

VIII.    SCHEDULE  FOR  THE  VALUATION  OF    FERTILISERS 

The  following  is  the  schedule  of  prices  adopted  by  agreement  by  the 
Experiment  Stations  of  the  states  of  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New 
Jersey,  and  Rhode  Island,  to  be  used  in  the  valuation  of  fertilisers  for  the 
year  1906: 

Cents  per  pound 

Nitrogen  in  ammonium  salts 17.5 

Nitrogen  in  nitrates 16.5 

Organic  nitrogen  in  dry  and  fine-ground  fish,  meat,  and  blood,  and 

in  mixed  fertilisers      .' 18.5 

Organic  nitrogen  in  fine  bone  and  tankage 18.0 

Organic  nitrogen  in  coarse  bone  and  tankage         13.0 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble  in  water 4.5 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble  in  ammonium  citrate 4.0 

Phosphoric  acid  in  fine-ground  fish,  bone,  and  tankage          ...  4.0 

Phosphoric  acid  in  coarse  fish,  bone,  and  tankage 3.0 

Phosphoric  acid  in  mixed  fertilisers,  if  insoluble  in  water  and  in  am- 
monium citrate 2.0 

Phosphoric  acid  in  cottonseed  meal,  castor  pomace,  and  wood  ashes  4.0 
Potash  in  high-grade  sulphate,  and  in  forms  free  from  muriate  (or 

chlorids) 5.0 

Potash  as  muriate 4} 


INDEX 


Abrasive  effects  of  sand,  19 
Absorbent  capacity  of  soils,  95 
Acid,  phosphoric,  forms  of,  370 
Acids  secreted  by  plant  roots,  9 
Adaptability  of  soils,  24 
Adobe  soils,  composition  of,  63 

where  found,  64 
Air  fertilises  the  soil,  37 
Air,  fertility  in,  29,  87 
Air  in  soils,  24 
Alabama,  rotation  in,  405 
Alfalfa,  value  as  a  soil  improver,  340 
Alkali  soils,  contents  of,  66 

cost  to  reclaim,  67 

deep  tillage  for,  68 

deficient  in  nitrogen,  69 

how  to  treat,  67 

two  types  of,  66 
Alluvial  soils,   17,  48 
Ammonia  is  not  nitrogen,  369 
Analyses  of    commercial    fertilising 
materials,  421^*22 

of  farm  manures,  422 
Analysing  soils  at  home,  71 
Analysis  of  adobe  soil  from  Santa  Fe", 
N.  M.,  417 

of  loess  from  Dubuque,  la., 
417 

of    soil    from   Yakima   Co., 
Wash.,  418 

of  swamp,  soil  in  Carteret 

Co.,  N.  C.,  418 
Angleworms,  service  of,   14 
Animal  excretions,  value  of,  316 
Animals  as  soil  builders,  12 

enrich  soils,  21 

obstruct   drains,    228 
Ants  as  soil  builders,  13 
Arid  land,  cost  of  levelling,  267 

should  be  level,  266 

water  needs  of,  265 
Arizona,  rotation  in,  405 
Arkansas,  rotation  in,  405 
Artesian  wells,  available  for  irriga 
tiuii,  244 


Artificial  fertilisers,  are  made  of,  366 

growth  of  trade  in,  365 
Ashes,  cotton  hull,  384 

hardwood,  384 

lime-kiln,  384 

softwood,  384 

unleached,   wood,   384 

use  of,  62 

wood,  for  muck  soils,  62 

Bacteria  do  not  thrive  on  sour  or 
wet  soils,  337 

each  crop  has  different,  335 

in  manure,  348 

in  the  soil,  40,  43,  334 
Barley,  temperature  of  soil  for,  32 
Beam  wheel,  plow,   133 
Blood,  dried,  contents  of,  378 
Bogs,  drainage  of,  201 
Breaks,  how  to  construct,  293 

necessary  to  good  farming,  294 
Brush  drag,  173 
Burrowing  animals  soil  builders,  13 

California,    rotation    in,    405 
Capacity  of  soils  to  hold  water,  80,  93 
Capillary  action,  89,  96 
Catch  crops,  how  to  use,  331 
Chemical  changes  in  the  soil,  44 
Chemical  vs.  mechanical  analysis, 

71 
Clay,  52 

loams,  58 

test  for,  72 

to  separate  from  sand  and 

silt,  73 
Clay  soils  are  cold,  33 

composition    of,    56 

crops  for,  59 

needs  of,  389 

properties   of,   52 

treatment  of,  57,  126 

value  of,  57,  93 

Cleansing  properties  of  commercial 
fertilisers,  321 

427 


428 


INDEX 


Clevis,  plow,  133 

Clover,  crimson,  a  soil  improver,  340 
red,  is  best  green-manuring 

crop,  338 

red,  when  to  sow,  338 
temperature  of  soil  for,  32 

Cold,  effect  on  rock,  6 

Cold  soil,  drainage  helps,  33 

Colorado,  rotation  in,  406 

Commercial  fertilisers,  364 

a  poor  soil  improver,  345 
are  made  of,  366 
when  to  apply,  395 

Composition  of  soils,  51 

Conglomerates,  5 

Connecticut,  rotation  in,  406 

Cottonseed  meal,  contents  of,  378 

Coulter,  disk  and  knife,  132 

Cover  crop  adds  humus  to  soil,  331 
how  to   use,   331 
checks  erosion,  293 
use    in    fruit    growing,    331 

Cow    manure,    plant    food    value, 
349 

Cowpea,  value  as  catch  crop,  339 
value  as  soil  improver,  339 

Crimson  clover  a  valuable  soil  im- 
prover, 340 

Crop  alternation  in  U.  S.,  examples 
of,  307-310,  319 

Cropping  impairs  fertility,  312 

Crop   rotation   checks  "club-foot," 

303 

fungous  diseases,   304 
insect  and  disease  injury,  303 
potato   scab,   303 
weediness,  302 

Crop  rotation  for  "Corn  Belt," 

308,  310 

for  dairy  farm,  308,  309 
for  hay  and  grains,  310 
why  beneficial,  800 

Crop  rotations  practised  in  different 
states,  407-419 

Crops,  catch  and  cover,  how  to  use, 

331 

choosing  for  a  rotation,  305 
clovers,  including  all  legumes, 
'      need  of,  393 
cotton,  needs  of,  394 
different  rooting    habits    of, 

301 

early,  best  slope  for,  34 
forage,  need  of,  393 


Crops,  for  loam  soils,  59 

for  sandy  loams,  55 

for  sandy  soils,  54 

for  sour  soils,  401 

fruit,  needs  of,  394 

gradual  decrease  in  yield,  285 
due  to  exhaustion  of 
soluble  plant  food,  286 

how  often  to  irrigate,  268 

Indian  corn,  needs  of,  393 

market  garden,  needs  of,  394 

needs  of  different,  392 
learned  by  study  393 

root  and  tuber  crops,  needs 
of,  394 

rotation,  a  law  of  Nature,  300 

rotation  of,  299 

sweet  and  Irish  potatoes,  needs 

of,  394 
Cultivate,  how  often,  165 

how  deep,  166 
Cultivating,  142 

to  kill  weeds,  157 
Cultivation  to  save  water,  163 
Cultivators,  broad-tooth,  assist  ero- 
sion, 295 

called  "horse  hoes,"  152 

definition  of,  152 

hand,  183 

shovel-tooth,  or  coulter,  153 

spike-tooth,    153,    184 

spring-tooth,  154 
Cultivators,  sulky,  155 

types  and  use  of,  144,  152-156: 
Culture,  level,  advantage  of,  168 

Dairy  farm  rotation,  308,  309 
Delaware,  rotation  in,  406 
Deodoriser,  soil  is  a,  39 
Disk  plow,  139 
Ditch  digging,  224 

tools  used  for,   224 
Ditches,  cement-lined,  252 

cost  of  filling,  229 

fix  grade  and  depth,  203,  214- 

how  to  dig,  202,  224 

open,  200,  202 

when  practicable,  201 

how  to  fill,  226 
Ditching  spade,  225 
Diversified  farming,  315 
Diversity  of  soils,   49 
Do  plants  excrete?  318 
Draft  in  plowing,  127 


INDEX 


429 


Drag,  brush,  use  of,  173 
Drainage  capacity  of  tiles,  223 

direct  benefits  of,  193 

ditch,  how  to  dig,  202 

for  special  crops,  195 

natural,  194 

poor,  signs  of,  190 

signs  of  need,  191 

warms  the  soil,  33 

when  needed,  190 

Drainage     system,     avoid     abrupt 
curves,  217 

cost  of,  229 

how  to  plan,  208 

map  and  drawing,  208 

outlet  for,  209 

planning,  207 
Draining,  effect  on  soil,  196 

farm  soils  need,  194 

first  cost  large,  196 

lowers   water-table,    198 

makes  soil  more  moist,  197 

pot   holes,    230 

practical  results  from,  199 

promotes    aeration,    197 

reclaims   swamps,    etc.,    193, 
231 

slope  an  aid  to,  195 

to  improve  texture,  192 
Drains,  box,  230 

brush,  230 

fall  of,  211 

grade  for,  207,  210 

kind  to  use,  200 

mole,  230 

pole,  230 

stone,  229 

surface,  200,  202 

tile,  201,  205,  217,  225 
Dried  blood,  contents  of,  378 
Drift  soils,  how  made,  12,  48 
Drumlins,  12 
Dry  farming,  105 

crops  under,  108,  238 

methods,  107 

secret  of,  108 

Early  crop,  best  slope  for,  34 
Earth  being  slowly  levelled,  4 
Earthworms  as  soil  workers,  14 
Electricity  of  the  soil,  the,  39 

increases  yield,  39 
Elements  in  rocks,  27 
Elements  in  soils,  27 


Engines  to  pump  water,  248 

cost    of,    248 

Erosion  causes  loss  of  fertility,  286 
checked  by  deep  plowing,  295 
directing   water,   291 
side-hill    "ditches,    291 
terracing,  291 
underdrainage,    294 
methods  of  checking,  288 
on  slope  lands,  288 
prevented  by  woodlands,  289 
trees  prevent,  289 
Erosive  action  of  sand,  19 
Eucalyptus  trees  aid  drainage,  78 
Evaporation  of  water,  88,  93 
Excretions,  animal,  value  of,  316 
Excretory  theory  of  soil  fertility,  3 18, 
321 

Fallowing  and  soil  fertility,  296 
methods  of,  298 
to  get  rid  of  weeds,  298 
to  set  free  plant  food,  297 
to  store  water,  297 
Fall  plowing,  134 
Farming,  diversified,  315 
dry,  105,  238 
improvident,  343 
single-crop,  310,  315 
Farm  irrigation,  233 
Farm  manures,  346 

analyses    of,    422 
Farm  products,  fertilising  materials 

in,  423-425 

Farm  soils,  leading  types  of,  53 
native  plant  food  in,  419 
test  of  water  capacity,  93 
Fertile  air,  29 

Fertilisers,  amount  to  apply,  397 
advantages   of    home-mixed, 

376 
artificial,  are  made  of,  366 

growth  of  trade  in,  365 
bill  of  American  farmers  ex- 
cessive, 364 
calculating    value    of,    from 

analysis,  373 
commercial,  as  soil  cleansers, 

321 
commercial,  when  to  apply, 

395 
common  way  of  testing,  390, 

391 
cost  of,  375 


430 


INDEX 


Fertilisers,  crude  fish  scrap,  386 

green  manures  not  complete, 

332 

how  to  apply,  396 
indirect,  benefit  the  soil,  399 
low  grade,  expensive,  375 
many  brands  of,  367 
new  theory  as  to  action,  519, 

320 
nitrogen,     quickly     soluble, 

396 

quantivalence  of,  370 
raw  materials  can  be  bought, 

377 

seaweed,  386 
tags,   studying,   368 

guarantees  on,  368 
tobacco  stems  and  stalks,  386 
trade    in,    State  supervision, 

367 

valuation  of,  schedule  for,  426 
value   based  on    amount   of 

plant  food  contained,  373 
value  of,  373 
what  kinds  to  use,  388 
when  complete   and   incom- 
plete, 366 

when  it  pays  to  use,  398 
wool  and  hair  waste,  386 
Fertilising  materials  in    farm  pro- 
ducts, 423-425 
Fertility,  influence  of  plant  food  on, 

281 

lost  in  cropping,  312 
loss  by  erosion,  286 
maintenance,conflicting  views 

on,  281 

of  soil,  to  maintain,  280,  311 
selling,  311 

soil,  new  theory  of,  318-321 
Fflm  water,  30 

as  plant  food,  25,  30 
held  by  soils,  amount  of,  81 
movement  of,  87,  90 
need  of,  31 
to  prevent  loss  of,  90 
Fineness  of  soil,  25 
Fire-fang  or  ferment,  349 
Flooding,   in  irrigation,   254 
Florida,  rotation  in,  407 
Flume,  how  to  build,  252,  258 
Forest,  preserve  on  hill  crests,  289 
Forests,  influence  on  water  supply, 
84 


Free  water,  rainfall  is,  29 

Fresh  manure  best  for  heavier  soils, 

360 

Frost  a  soil  refiner,  21 
Furrow  irrigation,  257-260 

Gang  plow,  139 

Garden  irrigation,  258 

Gases  absorbed  by  the  soil,  38 

German  potash    salts,    sources    of, 

385 

Germination  of  seeds,  99 
Germ  life  in  the  soil,  40 
Glacial  soils,  49 
Glaciers  deposit  soil,  11 
Good  texture,  how  Nature  secures, 

323 

humus  insures,  323 
what  is  meant  by,  322 
Grade  of  tile  drains,  210 
to  be  uniform,  211 
to  establish,  212,  214 
Gravelly  loams,  59 
Green  manure  benefits  poor   soils 

most,  336 
darkens  soil,  35 
red  clover  the  best,  338 
two  kinds  of,  329 
Green-manuring  and  worn-out  soils, 

322 
Green-manuring   for  impaired  soil, 

330 

Green   manures    from    non-legum- 
inous crops,  341 
not  complete  fertilisers,  332 
when  to  plow  under,  337 
Guarantees,     fertiliser,    points    for 

study  of,  372,  373 
Gullies,  clay  soils  most  liable,  294 

growth    checked    by  breaks, 

294 
Gypsum  alleviates  stable  odours,  356 

Hand  cultivators,  184 
Hand  tools,  183 
Harrowing,  objects  of,  142 
Harrow,  Acme,  148 

cutaway,  149 

disk,  149 

kinds  and  use,  144-152 

Meeker,  the,  150 

plank,  179 

rolling,  149 

smoothing,  147 


INDEX 


431 


Harrow,  spading,  149 

spike-tooth,  145,  146 

spring-tooth,  147,  148 
Hay  an  exhausting  crop,  313 

salt,  65 

Heat,  effect  on  rock,  6 
Hoes,  scuffle,  184 

styles  of  blades,  182 

wheel,  184 
Hoeing,  good  and  poor,  181 

purpose  of,  179 

to  kill  weeds,  180 

Hog  manure,  plant  food  value,  349 
Horses,  heavy  vs.  light  for  plowing, 

128 

Horse  manure,  value  of,  349 
How  deep  to  cultivate,  166,  168 
How  often  to  cultivate,  165 
How  plants  drink,  77 
Humus,  53 

enables  soil  to  hold  moisture, 
328 

increases    water  capacity  of 
soils,  83 

darkens  the  soil,  35 

test  for,  72 

value  of,  8,  83,  92 

Ice  has  made  soil,  11 

Idaho,  rotation  in,  407 

Idle  land  unprofitable,  332 

Illinois,  rotation  in,  407 

Improvident  farming,  343 

Indiana,  rotation  in,  407 

Infertility  caused  by  poor   texture, 
283 

Influence  of  sun  on  soil,  34 

Inoculating  with  old  soil,  334 
artificial  cultures,  334 

Inoculation  of  soils,  bacterial,   40, 
43,  334 

Insect  pests,  control  of,  303 

Iowa,  rotation  in,  408 

Irrigation,  alfalfa,  271 

afternoon  best  time  for,  269 
by  well  and  spring  water,  244 
directing  the  flow,  269 
extent  of,  233 
frequency  and  time  of,  267 
from  artesian  well,  244 
hydrant  water  for,   244 
in  foreign  countries,  233 
in  humid   regions,   289,   242 
in  the  East,  241 


Irrigation  in  United  States,  233-236 
market-garden,  241,  245 
National  aid  in,  275 
objects  of,  236 
of  meadows,  271 
orchard,  271 
of  small  fruits,  273 
of  potatoes,   273, 
pumping  water  for,  246 
sources  of  water  for,  244 
supply  of  water  for,  243 
of  tree  fruits,  271 
of  vegetables,  274 
when  necessary,  237 
winter,  268 

Japanese  pea,  value  as   a  soil  im- 
prover, 841 
Jointer,  plow,  132 
Joints  of  tile  drains,  226 

Kainit,  effect  of,  403 

enriches  manure,  357 
source  of  and  contents,  385 
value  of,  385 

Kansas,  rotation  in,  408 

Kentucky,  rotation  in,  408 

Land  reclaimed  by  drainage,  231 
enriched  by  irrigation,  237 
Land    plaster,    as    aid    in    saving 

manure,  357 

or  gypsum,  effect  on  soil,  402 
for  treating  alkali  soils,  402 
Land,  when  to  ridge,  169 
Landside  plow,  137 
Legume,  what  it  is,  329 

benefit  poor  soils  most,  336 
Leguminous   plants    renovate   soil, 

330,  334 

Level  culture,  advantage  of,  168 
Level,  home-made,  to  construct  213 
how  to  use,  213 
spirit,  use  of,  216 
Lime  and  land  plaster  called  indirect 

fertilisers,  399 

Lime,  air-slaked,  how  used,  402 
effect  on  light  soil,  899 
leachy  soil,  399 
clay  soil,  399 
how  to  apply,  401 
water-slaKed  best  form  to  use 

on  sour  soils,  401 
when  to  apply,  402 


432 


INDEX 


Liming,  benefits  of,  399,  400 

benefits  acid  soil,  338 
Litmus  tests  for  sour  soils,  401 
Live-stock  excrements,  value  of,  316 
Loams,  sandy,  55 

clay,  58 

Loam  soils,  value  of,  59,  93 
Loams,  gravelly  and  stony,  59 
Loess  soils,  composition  of,  62, 

where   found,    63 
Louisiana,  rotation  in,  409 
Lupines  grown  for  green-manuring, 
341 

Maine,  rotation  in,  409 

Mains,  rules  for  estimating  size  of, 
223 

Manure,  green,  darkens  soil,  35 
two  kinds,  829 
horse,  cow,  and  hog,  value  of, 

349 

horse,  value  of,  349 
how  it  benefits  the  soil,  346 
improve  texture  of  the  soil,  347 
pits,  855 
quality  of,  350 
rotted,  best  for  lighter  soils, 

360 

sheep  and  poultry,   850 
spreaders,  363 

Manures    and     fertilisers    as    soil 
cleansers,  319 

Manures,  animal,  value  of,  316 

amount   made  on  the  farm, 

358 

excel  in  nitrogen,  362 
farm,  analyses  of,  422 

average  values  of,  850 
green  feeds  aid  production  of, 

358 

how  much  to  use,  361 
how  to  apply,  863 
how  to  care  for,  354 
how  wasted,  351 
injury  from  heating,  353 
loss  from  escape  of  urine,  354 
loss  from  fermentation,  353 
loss  from  leaching,  352 
new  theory  as  to  action,  319, 

320 

plant  food  in,  wasted,  352 
spreading  in  winter,  360 
trie  real  value  of,  346 
to  estimate  plant  food  in,  359 


Manures  to  prevent  loss  by  heating, 
356 

when  to  apply,  860 
Marl,  effect  of,  402 
Marshes,  drainage  of,  201 
Maryland,  rotation  in,  409 
Massachusetts,    rotation    in,    410 
Measuring  water,  methods  of,  262 
Meal,  cottonseed,  contents  of,  378 
Mechanical  vs.  chemical  analysis,  71 
Michigan,  rotation  in,  410 
Mineral  contents  of  soil,  26,  28 
Miner's  inch,  definition  of,  263 
Mississippi,  rotation  in,  410 
Missouri,  rotation  in,  410 
Modules,  263 
Montana,  rotation  in,  411 
Morains,  12 

Mosaic  law  as  to  fallowing,  296 
Moss,    sphagnum,    47 
Mouldboard,  plow,  131 
Moving  water,  action  of,  16 
Muck,  crops  for,  62 

soils,  60 

wood  ashes  for,  62 
Mulch,  definition  of,  91 

in  dry  fanning,  107 

prevents  loss  of  soil  water,  91 
Mulches,  the  most  effective,  91 
Muriate  of  potash,  contents  of,  385 

value  of,  385 

Native  plant  food  in  farm  soils,  421 
Nebraska,  rotation  in,  411 
Nevada,  rotation  in,  411 
New  Hampshire,  rotation  in,  411 
New  Jersey,  rotation  in,  412 
New  Mexico,  rotation  in,  412 
New  York,  rotation  in,  412 
Nitrate  of  soda,  Chili  salt-petre,  con- 
tents of,  378 
Nitric  acid  ferment,  40 
Nitrification  of  soils,  40 
Nitro-culture,    bacteria,    835 
Nitrogen  fertilisers  quickly  soluble, 

396 
Nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  40 

process  of,  329,  334 
Nitrogen  in  soils,  value  of,  41 

most  costly  plant  food,  377 

sources  of,  377 

Non-leguminous  plants  as   soil  im- 
provers, 341 
North  Carolina,  rotation  in,  412 


INDEX  433 

North  Dakota,  rotation  in,  4  IS  Plant  food  drawn  from  the  soil  by 

Northern  slope  vs.  southern  slope,  34  average  yields  of  different 

crops,  420 

Oats   and   buckwheat  as   soil   im-  ®m  ™ter  ,as:  *J    ..        ... 

•    *4.9  m  an"  lands  ineffective  with- 


/)         *-  .                .               OQQ 

Obstructions  in  drains,  to  prevent,  ,   9J",  w<    .'  * 

OOQ  locked  up  in  soils,  283 

* 

Okiaho™ti±Son  In'  41S 

Oregon,  rotation  in,  414  *.  410 

not  fertih'ty,  281 

Peat  and  muck  soils,  needs  of,  S90.  pebbles  as,  25 

Peat,  formation  of,  47  soils   exhausted   of,   284 

Peat  soils,  60  soil  a  storehouse  of,  282 

crops  for,  62  stones  as,  25 

Pebbles  as  plant  food,  25  value   of   different   manures, 

Pennsylvania,   rotation  in,  414  349 

Phosphoric  acid,  available,  370  trade  value  of,  375 

cost  of,  383  Plants  as  soil  builders,  7,  8,  10,  53 

forms  of,  370  do  they  excrete,  318 

insoluble,  371  enrich  soils,  21 

phosphate  meal,  381  excrete  poisonous  wastes  from 

reverted,  372  roots,  320 

soluble,  370  how  they  drink,  77 

sources  of,  379  leguminous,  definition  of,  329 

acid    phosphate,    383  for  soils  lacking  nitrogen,  329 

basic  slag,  381  used  for  green  manures,  329, 

bone      boiled     and  334 

steamed,     contents,  soil-building,   check  erosion, 

380  29 

dissolved  bone,  382  Bermuda  grass,  292 

dissolved      boneblack,  brome  grass,  293 

contents,  380  Lespedeza,  293 

dissolved  rock,  383  sanitation  by,  320 

phosphate   slag,    con-  water  needed  by,  76 

tents  of,  381  what  they  feed  upon,  45 
plain  superphosphate,      Plow  across  slopes  to  check  erosion, 

383  295 

raw  bone,  contents,379  beam,  131 

rock  phosphates,  con-  beam  wheel,    133 

tents  of,  381  clevis,  133 

superphosphates,    382  coulter,  132 

Thomas  slag,  contents  disk,  139 

of,  381  early    American,    115 

Pine  barrens,  51  essentials  of  a  good,  131,  133 

Pits,  cement,  to  save  manures,  355  evolution  of  the,  114-117 

Planker,  how  to  make,  178  gang,  139 

use  of,  179  how  deep  to,  122 

Planking,  benefit  of,  178  jointer,  132 

Plant  food,  25,  45  landside,  137 

air  as,  29  mouldboard,  131 

available     only     in     certain  point,  133 

forms,  283  share,  133 


434 


INDEX 


Plow,  the  modern,  116 

subsoil,  125 

sulky,  138 

swivel,  137 

trenching,  224 

when  to,  134-136 
Plowing,  a  soil  cooler,  36 

deep,  121,  123,  124,  126 

deep,  vs.  shallow,  126 

draft  in,  127 

fall,  134 

flat-furrow,  118 

for  fruit  trees,  and  root  crop, 
123 

heavy  teams  for,  128 

in  heavy  soils,   121 

in  the  South,  126 

lap-furrow,  119 

leguminous  crop  grown  for, 
329,  334 

objects  and  methods,  114-131 

overlapping-furrow,    118 

power  for,   129 

rolling-furrow,  118 

spring,  135 

steam  power,   130 

to  drain  soil,  122 

to  establish  a  mulch.  122 
Plowing  under  a  green  manure,  337 

when  dispensed  with,  136 
Plows,  adjustment  of,   140 

various  types  of,  137 
Potash,   sources  of,   384 
Poultry  manure,  of  highest  value,  350 
Power  for  plowing,  129 

electricity  used,  130 

steam,  130 

Pumpkins,  temperature  of  soil  for,  32 
Pumps  for  irrigating  purposes,  246 

cost  of,  248,  250 

hydraulic    rams,    250 

steam  and  gasoline  engines, 
248 

water-wheels,   249 

windmills,  247 

Quantivalence  of  fertilisers,  370 
Questioning  the   soil,   390 

by  experiment  with  fertilisers, 
390,  391 

Rainfall,  general,  map  of,  2S6 
insufficient,  78 
soil  storage  of,  79 


Rainfall,  supplies  free  water,  29 

unevenly  distributed,  78 
Rape  a  good  soil  improver,  342 
Raw  materials,  actual  mixing  easily 
done,  388 

cheaper  to  buy,  388 

mixing  the,  387 

Reclamation  Act  of  1902,  243,  276 
Reclamation  of  alkali  soils,  67 
Red  clover  excels  as  a  soil  improver, 

338 

Reducing  and  fining  process  cease- 
less, 4 
Reservoirs,  for  water  storage,  248 

small,  how  to  build,  245 
Rhode  Island,  rotation  in,  414 
Ridging  crops  promotes  erosion,  296 

land,  168 
Rock  becoming  soil,  3,  27 

elements  in,  27 

erosion  of,  19 

split  by  roots  and  stems,  9 

weathering  of,  3 
Rollers,  kinds  and  use,   177 
Rolling,  to  assist  germination,   171 

benefits  of,  173-176 
Roots,  fertilising  value  of,  332 

plant,  secrete  acids,  9 

split  rocks,  9 

Rotating  crops,  rules  for,  305 
Rotation,  few  systems  of,  in  U.  S., 
307-310,  319 

for  "Corn  Belt,"  308,  310 

for  hay  and  grains,  310 

of  sown  and  tilled  crops,  303 

typical  systems  of,  307 
Rotations     practised     in     different 

states,  407-419 

Rye    improves    soil    when    plowed 
under,  341 

Salt  an  indirect  fertiliser  to  small 

extent,  399 
Salt  hay,  65 
Salt,  little  used  as  fertiliser,  403 

marshes,  drainage  for,  65 
marsh  soils,  64 

how  formed,  65 
crops  for,  65 
Sand,  51 

abrasive  effects  of,   19 

dunes,  50 

test  for,  72 

to  separate  from  siltand  clay  ,73 


INDEX 


435 


Sandy  loams,  55 

soils,  54,  93 

soils  are  warm,  33 

soils,  needs  of,  389 

treatment  of,  55,   123 

value  of,  55 

Seaweed,  as  fertiliser,  386 
Sedentary  soils,  46 
Seedlings,  tree,  290 
Seeds    of    quick-growing    trees,    to 

sow,  290 

Seeds,  to  germinate  well,  99 
Seepage,  loss  of  water  by,  84 

water,  loss  of  plant  food  in,  85 
Selling  fertility,  311 
Separating  sand,  silt,  and  clay,  73 
Shallow  soils,  30 

are  dryest,  82 
Share,  plow,  133 
Sheep  manure,  a  good  plant  food, 

350 
Silt,  52 

test  for,  72 

to   separate   from    clay    and 

sand,  73 
Single-crop  farming,  310,  315 

is  ruinous,  311 

Slope  of  land  desirable,  34,  195 
Soa  land,  to  retain  water  in,  170 
Soil,  a  chemical  laboratory,  45 

acid,  benefit  of  liming,  338 

alluvial,  17,  48 

analysis  a  guide  to  fertilising, 
389 

bacteria,  334 

becoming  rock,  5 

building,  history  of,  7  — 

built  by  wind,  18,  50 

chemical  changes  in  the,  44 

cleansers,   manures  and  fer- 
tilisers, 319 

cold,  drainage  helps,  33 

contains    air,    24 

elements    in,     27 

evolution  of,  7 

experts,  figures  by,  24 

fertilised  by  air,  37 

fertility,  excretory  theory  of, 
318,  321 

fertility,  new  theory  of,  3 18-321 

fine,  water  capacity  of,  81,  83 

fineness  of,  23 

fineness   is   richness,   25 

formation,  example  of,  5  — 


Soil,  germ  life  in  the,  40 
how  plants  make,  8 
how  water  is  held  in,  29 
influence  of  exposure,  34 
influence  of  sun  on,  34 
inoculation,   bacterial,  334 
inoculation  with  bacteria,  40, 

43 

is  a  deodoriser,  39 
keep  it  busy,  304 
left  by  glaciers,  11 
made  by  ice,  11 
made  by  rocks,  3,  27 
mineral  contents  of,  26 
moved  by  water,  16 
must  be  moist,  SO 
must  be  warm,  31 
nature  of,  22 
particles,  number  of,  23 
renovation,  how  to  begin,  344 
vt.   subsoil,    69 
survey,  U.  S.,  74 
temperature,  31 
temperature,  influence  of  til- 
lage on,  36 
teems  with  life,  20 
tests,  72 
to  improve  ventilation  of  the, 

37 

value  as  a  mulch,  91 
ventilation  of,  37,  111 
water,  seepage  of,  85 

can  be  prevented,  87 
water,  to  maintain  supply,  75 
when  ready  to  harrow,  151 
yeast  cake,  action  of,  335 

Soils,  absorbent,  95 

absorb  various  gases,  38 
activity  of,  3,  20,  21 
adaptability  of,  24 
adobe,  63 
alluvial,  17,  48 
analysing  at  home,  71 
average  depth  of,  48 
capacity  to  liold  water,  80,  93 
cause  of  infertility,  320    v 
clayey,  56 

composition  of,  3,  51 
dark-coloured,  35 
distribution    of,    49 
diversity  of,  49 
drift,  48 

exhausted  of  plant  food.  284 
farm,  leading  types  of,  53 


436 


INDEX 


Soils,  farm,  mostly  incomplete,  4 

native  plant  food  in, 

419 
test  of  water  capacity, 

93 

glacial,  49 

now  to  manage,  46,  123 
kinds  of,  46-50 
light-coloured,  to  make  dark, 
35 

treatment  of,  35 
loess,  62 

native  richness  of,  281 
peat  and  muck,  60 
salt  marsh,  64 
sandy,   54,   123 
sedentary,  46 
shallow,  30 
sour    and  wet,  unfavourable 

to  bacteria,  337,  401 
test  of  water-moving  ability, 

95 

tests  for,  72 
that  need   liming,   400 
transported,  47 
unproductive    because    mis- 
managed, 344 
value  of,  50 
value  of  testing,  73 
water    capacity    of,    how   to 

increase,  83 

why  they  are  sour,  400 
worn-out,   and  green-manur- 
ing, 322 

Soja  bean  a  good  soil  improver,  341 
Sour  soils,  crops  for,  401 

how  to  sweeten,  401 
tests  for,  401 
what  to  plant  in,  401 
why  so,  400 

South  Carolina,   rotation  in,  414 
South  Dakota,  rotation  in,  415 
Soy  bean  a  good  soil  improver,  341 
Spade,  ditching,  225 
Sphagnum  moss,  47 
Spring  plowing,  135 
Stock-feeding  and  soil  fertility,  345 
Stones  as  plant  food,  25 

heaved  up,  5 
Stony  loams,  59 

Streams  underground,  85,  243 
Stubble,  fertilising  value  of,  352 
Sub-irrigation,  260 
cost  of,  260 


Sub-Irrigation,  of  soils,  260 

pipes  for,  261 

tiles  for,  261 

Subsoil,  influence  on  water  capacity 
of  soils,  82 

what  it  is,  69 
Subsoiling,  124,  125 
Succession  cropping,  profits  of,  311 
Sulky  plow,  138 
Sulphate  of  ammonia,  378 

nitrogen  contents  of,  378 

of  potash,  386 

high  grade,  cost  of,  386 
low  grade,  cost  of,  386 
Sun,  influence  of,  on  soil,  34 

like  a  pump,  89 
Superphosphate,    enriches    manure, 

357 

Swivel  plow,  137 
Sylvinit,  a  crude  potash  salt,  385 

Tags,  fertiliser,  guarantees  on,  368 

repetitions    in,    369 

studying,  368 

Temperature  changes,  results  of,  5 
Temperature  of  different  soils,  32 

of  the  soil,  31 

for  barley,  32 
for  clover,  32 
for  pumpkins,  32 
for  tomatoes,  32 
Tennessee,  rotation  in,  415 
Tests  for  soils,  72 
Texas,  rotation  in,  415 
Texture,  soil,  manure  improves,  347 
Tile  drains,  cost  of  laying,  228 

kinds  of  tiles  for,  221 

need  close  joints,  226 

obstructions  in,  227 

size  of  tiles  for,  217 

to  fix  grade,  212,  214 

to  lay,  206,  216,  221,  225 

round   are   best,   221 

use  of,  205 
Tiles,  3-inch  best  for  drains,  217 

cost   of,    229 

drainage  capacity  of  sizes,  223 

glazed,  222 

how  to  lay,  225,  261 

how  to  select,   222 

kinds  of,  221 

relative  capacity  of  sizes,  223 

round,  most  in  use,  221 

special  forms  of,   221 


INDEX 


437 


Tillage  after  irrigation  essential,  270 
benefits  of,  97,  105,  112 
deep,  increases  water  capacity 

of  soils,  83 
good,  value  of,  36 
influence  on  soil  temperature, 

36 

present  emphasis  on,  97 
promotes  fertility,  110 
to  kill  weeds,  101 
to  prepare  seed  bed,  98 

Tomatoes,  temperature  of  soil  for,  32 

Tools,  a  variety  needed,  186 
extravagance  in,  186] 
farm,  selection  of,  185 
hand,  183 

Transported   soils,   47 

Tree  seeds,  290 

Trees  an  aid  to  drainage,  78 

hardwood   preferable,    290 
how  to   transplant,   290 
quick-growing,       to       check 
erosion,  290 

Tree  roots  obstruct  drains,  228 

seedlings,  how  to  set  out,  291 

Under-drainage,  philosophy  of,  205 

cost  of,  229 

to  lower  water-table,  83 

benefits  of,  192 

deepens  shallow  soils,  192 

for  clayey  soils,  192 
Under-drains,  action  of,  205 

cost  of  laying,   228 

depth  of,  219,  220 

distance  between,  218 

kinds  of  tiles  for,  221 

to  estimate  size  of,  223 
Underground  streams,  85,  243 
Unproductive  soils  have  been  mis- 
managed,  344 
Utah,  rotation  in,  415 

Value  of  testing  soils,  73 
Ventilation  of  the  soil,  37,  111 
Vermont,  rotation  in,  416 
Vetches,  smooth  and  hairy,  soil  im- 
provers, 341 
Virginia,  rotation  in,  416 

Washington,  rotation  in,  416 
Water  absorbed  from  ah-,  31 

amount    needed    by    plants, 
76,264 


Water,  amount  required  to  produce 

crops,  238 
capacity  of  soils  to  hold,  80 

93 

contents  of  soil,  29 
distribution  for  irrigation,  250 
ditches  and  flumes,  251 
duty  of,  264 
film,  30 

amount  held  by  soils, 

81 

movement  of,  87 
to  prevent  loss  of,  90 
for  irrigation,  sources  of,  244 
free,  to  remove  excess,  204 
held  in  the  soil,  29 
irrigation,  best  way  to  use,  254 
by   flooding,    254 
by    furrows,    257 
contour  check  system, 

255 

filling  the  checks,  255 
how  to  apply,  253 
•  on   slopes,    255 

wild    flooding,    256 
loss  by  evaporation,  88,  93 
loss  by  seepage,  84 
measurement,  acre  inch,  263 
for    irrigation,    262 
how  to  regulate,  262 
miner's  inch,  263 
modules,  263 

moving,  action  on  soil,  15 
pipes,  252 

required   for  arid   soils,   265 
right,    cost    of, 
soil,  cultivation  to  save,  163 

maintenance  of,  75 
supply,    influence    of   forests 

on,  84 

units  in  measuring,  263 
Water-built  soils,  17 
Water-moving  ability  of  soils,  92 
Water-moving  ability  of  soils,   test 

of,  95 
Water-table,  29 

height  of,  82 

Water-wheels,  as  pumps,  249 
Weathering  of  rocks,  3,  5 
Weeders,  types  and  use  of,  156 
Weeds,  best  time  to  kill,  159 
cultivating  to  kill,  157 
Weeds,  definition,  101 

discourage   laziness,    103 


438  INDEX 

Weeds,  friendly  words  for,  102  Wild  flooding,  irrigation  by,  256 

hoeing  to  kill,  180  Willow  trees  aid  drainage,  78 

injury  done  by,  157  Wind  as  soil  builder,  18,  50 

in  sown  crops,  163  Windbreaks,  hedges  and  trees  as,  278 

recipes  for,  101  Wind-built  soils,  50 

seeds  of,  160  Windmills,  use  and  cost,  247 

when  they  thrive,  160  Wisconsin,  rotation  in,  416 

Weight  of  soils,  26  Wood  ashes  benefit  muck  soils,  62 
Wet  soils  are  cold,  33  ashes,  effect  of,  402 

When  to  plow,  134-136  Worn-out  soils  in  special  need  of 
White  mustard  improves  light  sandy  humus,  344 

soils,  342  how  to  restore,  342 

White  sweet  clover  a  soil  improver,  Wyoming,  rotation  in,  417 
341 


1308 


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